Cawdor, Earl, 184
Celts, Neolithic, 102-6, 173; from
Scotland, 1835 from Troy, 190;
from Italy, 1915 in Spain, 194,
195, 196; from Brittany, 199;
Copper and Bronze Age, 202-4,
PL 26. 1-9

Chalcolithic culture, 3
Chamblandes, burials at, 159
Childe, V. G., 134 n,, 144, 157 n.
China, painted pottery from, 79,
143, 216

ns

Chisels, Neolithic, 106-8, PL 10.

7, 8, Pl. 11. 2. See also Shoe last
Ciempozuelos pottery, 196, 222,
Pl. 25

Cissbury, chisels from, 108 j flint
mines at, 174, 175

Cleveland Hills, pigmy flints from,
167

Climate, Palaeolithic, 55 Mesolithic,
10, 28, 755 Neolithic, 74-9, 97,
X3X> x33> 135

Clonfinlough, design at, 222, 228,
Pl. 27. 2
Coffey, G., 184
Colne Valley, industry, 164
Combs, occurrence of, 43
Constantine Bay, Padstow, pigmy
industry at, 167

Copper, in Spain, 50, 150, 152, 185,
192, 195-6; in eastern Europe,
138; at Carnac, 158; in the Swiss
Lake Dwellings, 161; at Stone-
henge, 178; in Egypt, 187; in
the Greek islands, 189; at Troy,
190; in Sardinia, 192; in Hun-
gary, 2005 and tin, 201
Corded pottery, 126, 135-6, 156
Cornwall, Mesolithic industry in,
19, 167

Correia, V., 162
Coton, celt from, 104, Pl. 8. 4
Crannogs, in Ireland, 93
Crawford, O. G. S., 184
Cremation, occurrence of, 133, 136,
137, 183, 207-8

Creswell Crags, industry at, 163,
164, 168

Crete, Neolithic culture in, 1875
Copper and Bronze Ages in,
188-9, 190, 208-95 influence of,
197-8

Crimea, Tardenoisean culture in
the, 18

Cromlech (stone circle), description
of, 146, Pl. 225 at Carnac, 148,
x99

Cucuteni, Moldavia, painted pot-
tery at, 138, 140
 INDEX

236

Cueva Menga, passage grave at, x 50;

human figures at, 230
Cypriote daggers, 205
Cyprus, tools from, 200, 205

Daggers, Neolithic, 113, PI. 12. 3,
155; Spanish, 195, 196, 197,
220; Copper and Bronze, 204-5,
PL 26

Danube, the, and migrations, 97,
100, 146; pottery, 122, 124, 190,
Pl. 15. 10-12, 14, 15; civilisation
of, ch. V passim, 154, 160; trade
with Troy, 191
D6chelette, J., 162, 211
Deer Park, Sligo, megaliths, 177
Denmark, pigmy industries in, 165
and Maglcmosean culture, 27 fF.;
and Kitchen midden culture, 44,
56; Neolithic implements from,
104, 105, 108, 118, 120, Pl. 14. 4;
Bronze Age garment from, 210
Dimini, Thessaly, painted pottery
at, 140, 142
Discs, Neolithic, 120
Dorpfeld, W., 200
Dog, Azilian, 10, 56; Tardenoisean,
23 j Kitchen midden, 40, 43;
Neolithic, 635 at Anau, 86
Dolmens, description of, 148-9, Pl.
22. 1, ia; Spanish, 194-65 at
Carnac, 198; designs on, 224-31
Domestic animals, 2, 4, 9, 23, 25,
26, 40, 46, 47, 50-2, 56-64; at
Anau, 85-6; of Troy, 190; in
Italy, 191; in Spain, 219. See also
Cattle, Dog, Goat, Horse, Pig,
Sheep

Dowth, tumulus at, 226
Drumvaig, see Oban
Dupont, E., 21
Dzungarian Gate, the, 82, 83

East Anglia, tools of, 102-22;
microliths in, 167, 170, PL 24;
Neolithic culture in, 170, 172,
173, 174, 179, 1825 Beaker Folk
in, 182; Bronze Age in, 201

Eastbourne, scraper from, no, PL

10. 5

Eastern Area, described, 97; pottery
of the, 122, Pl. 15, 126; culture
of the, 131-43

Egypt, sickle from, 55; plough
from, 55 n.$ domestic animals of,
64; painted pottery in, 143; and
megaliths, 151-2; Neolithic in-
dustries of, 185-75 Copper and
Bronze Ages in, 187, 210; and
Crete, 209 n.

El Argar culture, 197
Eneolithic culture, 3
England, megaliths in, 151, 153;
Mesolithic times in, 163-70; post-
Mesolithic times in, 170-2; Neo-
lithic times in, 173-83. See also
Britain

Eolithic period, 3
Eridu, painted pottery at, 189
Eriswell, Neolithic implements from,
108, 114, Pl. 10. 9 and Pl. n.
10

Erosd, Transylvania, painted pot-
tery at, 138

Essex, post-Mesolithic industries in,
170, 172

Evans, Sir A., 209
Ewart, J. C., 72, 73

Fabricator, Neolithic, 108-9,

10. XI

Fayum, the, Neolithic industry in,
185

Federsee, Wiirttemberg, and the
“Boreal” period, 75, 765 pottery
from, 126, Pl. 18. 7-9
Figurines, human, 86,134,143,188,
191, 216-17, Pis. 20. 3, 5, 21. 3
and 29. 5

Finland, Maglemosean culture in,
27, 30 “comb” decoration in,
*54

Fish, hooks, 36; engravings of, 213,
216, PL 25. 4, 5
Fishing, at Troy, 190
Flax, in Neolithic civilisation, 54
 INDEX

Flint, flaking, 15, 16, 67, 68, 69;
quarrying of, 70-2; in Neolithic
huts, 88; in England, 173
Flint implements, see Tools
Folkton Wold, chalk drums from,
231, PI. 29. 3
Fontanalba, art of, 224
Fontanella, Bronze Age culture at,
208

Fordham, arrow-head from, 114,
Pl. 11. 5

Forests, and Neolithic culture, 97,
167, 179, 180

Fox, Dr Cyril, 94, 182, 184, 211
France, Azilian culture in, 12, 13,
14; 23; Asturian culture in, 26;
Maglemosean finds in, 27
Fry, Dr, 176

Furfooz, Mesolithic industries at, 21

Gabal, rock shelter at, 222
Galicia, painted pottery in, 138; rock
carvings in, 222, 228, PI. 27.4
Gams, H., 101

Gavr’inis, designs at, 199, 226, PI.
29. 1

Germany, Azilio-Tardenoisean cul-
ture in, 20-1; climate of, 75-7,
97; Neolithic houses in, 88-9;
migrations into, 97, 156
Gimpera, P. Bosch, 162
Glastonbury Lake village, 93
Goat, found in Swiss Lake dwellings,
62

Gobi Desert, and Neolithic civilisa-
tion, 79, 82, 83

Gohlitsch, Saxony, kist tomb near,
226

Goessler, 89

Gold, in prehistoric times, 1, 2; in
Egypt, 187; at Troy, 190; in Spain,
192, 196, 197; in Ireland, 228
Gouge, Neolithic, 108, PL 9. 3
Gozo, culture of, 191
Granaries, in Egypt, 186
Grand Pressigny, flint from, 19,122,
159, 161, 199
Grapes, Neolithic, $4

m

Greece, Neolithic houses in, 905
pottery in, 118, 188; Bronze Age
in, 209-10

Grenelle, human remains at, 23
Grimes Graves, flint from, 71; im-
plement from, no, PL 10. 4;
industry at, 170, 174-5
Grossgartach, Neolithic house at, 89
Grotte des Enfants, 18, 19-20
Guden River, pigmy tools from, 45,
PL 5

Habitations, Palaeolithic, 5; Neo-
lithic, 86-95; pottery models of,
90; of the Eastern Area, 132,

136-7; at Troy, 190; Bronze Age,
207

Haddon, A. C., 101
Haldorf, Hesse Cassel, Neolithic
house at, 89
Hall, H. R., 200, 211
Hallstatt culture, 3, 207
Hallstrom, G., 231
Harpoons, 6, 10; Azilian, 13, 18,
164, 165, Pl. 1. 1 a, 166, 167;
Maglemosean, 36, Pl. 3, 38, 43,
44, 1705 Neolithic, 119, PL 13. 3
Hastings, pigmy industry near, 19,
167

Havelse Ros, Kildefjord, harpoons
from, 36

Helladic culture, 210
Hesbayt,fonds de cabanes at, 87, 132
Hesse, and Danubian culture, 133
Hinkelstein pottery, 122, Pl. 15.6.8,
133

Hoernes, M., 72
Holland, in Neolithic times, 158
Holmegaards Mose, shoulder point
from, 32

Horse, occurrence of, 23, 25, 47, 565
Neolithic, 63-4; at Anau, 85
Hungary, pottery in, 124; knife
blades from, 132; trade with, 200

Icklingham, Neolithic implements
from, 106, no, 114, Pl. 10. 3. 8,
Pl. 11.1
 INDEX

238

India, pigmy industries in, 16; and
Sumerian culture, 189, 21072.
Ireland, implements from, 120,
Pl. 14. 2. 3, 172; beakers from,
182; connexion of, with Brittany,
199, 226; prehistoric art in, 226-
30, PI. 29. 2

Italy, Mesolithic culture in, 18, 19,
2oj pile-dwellings in, 915 Neo-
lithic burial in, 96} Beaker Folk
in, 138; Copper Age culture in,
191 j Bronze Age culture in, 197

Javelins, Neolithic, 120, 155, 176
Johansen, K. F., 49
Jutland, animal figures from, 38;
shell mounds in, 44} pigmy tools
in, 45} 118; Battle Axe Folk in,
*55> *57

Kasemose, pigmy tools from, 37
Keller, F., 91
Kempchik Bom, the, 83
Kentford, Neolithic fabricator from,
108, PL 10. 11

Kirkcudbright, Azilian culture near,
*3> 164

Kists, stone, burial in, 136} de-
scription of, 149, PI. 22. 6} in
Scandinavia, 150} in England,
151, 177} in Spain, 196
Kitchen middens, 4, 10, 40-5 j Folk
of the, 43, 45, 154
Knockmany, tumulus, 226, 230
Knossos, Neolithic industries at,
187-8} Bronze Age at, 209
Knowles, W. J., 184

La Franca, cave of, 25
Laguna de la Janda, rock shelters at
the, 217

Laibach, see Loubliana
Lake-dwellings, 91-4, 106 j culture
of the, 100, 137, 145, 160-1;
pottery of the, 124, PL 16. 3, 8,10,
126, 135} *n the Bronze Age, 207
Lakenheath, Neolithic implements
from, 103, 108, Pl. 8. 2, PL 11. 2

Lamp, from Cissbury, 175
Lances, Bronze Age, 205, PL 26
Land’s End, pigmy flints from, 167
La Pileta, rock paintings, 220
Lapis lazuli at Anau, 85
Las Batuecas, rock shelters at, 218,
219

Las Carolinas, pottery from, 194,
PL 25. 3

Las Figuras, paintings at, 218

La Tkne culture, 3

La Tourasse (Pyrenees), dog at, 10,56

Layard, N., 73

Leeds, E. T., 184

Leka, Norway, paintings at, 214

Lengyel, Hungary, barley from, 54;

pottery from, 134
Lequeux, L., 48

Lincolnshire, pigmy flints in, 167,
170

Littorina Utorea, evidence from, 26,29
Los Letreros, wall-painting at, 55,
219

Los Millares, pottery from, 194, 222
Los Molinos, painting at, 219
Los Murci61agos, cave of, 192
Loubliana (Laibach), lake-dwellings
near, 91, 925 pottery, 137, PL 20,
159, 161

Loughcrew, tumuli, 226, 230
Lydekker, R., 72, 73

Macalister, R. A. S., 232
McArthur’s Cave, see Oban
MacCurdy, G. G., 232
Magdalenian culture, influence of,
in England, 164
Magic, and art, 2, 6, 65, 223
Maglemosean culture, 10, 27-39,
554> 213, Pl* 3 5 name of, 31 w.j
in Yorkshire, 170
Malta, culture of, 191-2
Man, Isle of, beaker from, 182}
“scribed stones” from, 182 n.
Manea, Honey Hill, industry at, 182
Marschwitz culture, 200
Marsden, see Warcock Hill
Mas d’Azil, cave of, 8
 INDEX

239

Mayen, “post-houses” near, 88-9
Mediterranean area, 98, ch. vin;
race, 99; Bronze Age culture in
the, 201, 208-10, 217; and the
Earth Mother, 231
Megalithic constructions, 31, 145,
146-9, 151-2, 154; in England,
173, 175-95 in Spain, 194-6; art
and, 224-31

Melos, obsidian from, 188, 189
“Menhir Idol” the, 231, PL 29. 7
Menhirs, description of, 1465 at
Carnac, 148,198-9; drawings on,
224; carvings on, 231
Mentone, Grotte des Enfants, 18,
19-20; 163, 168
Merejkowsky, C. de, 49
Merseburg, and the Rossen culture,
136^

Mesolithic period, 3, ch. I passim;
influence of, 1455 in England,
164-70, 173

Mesopotamia, the battle axe and,
157 pottery from, 189; Bronze
Age culture of, 210-11, 216
Metals, use of, 50, 56, 216; at Anau,
85-6; and megaliths, 151, 158,
176, 197, 198, 199. See also
Copper, Bronze, etc.

Michelberg, pottery from, 126,
PL 17. 1-2

Mill for grinding grain, 54, 56
Millet, Neolithic, 53
Minoan cultures, 209-10, 215
Minyan pottery, 210
Mondsee, pile dwellings in the, 137,
161

Montmorency, Neolithic site at, 55,
159

Moravia, and Danubian culture,
133, 134; Beaker Folk burials in,
137; and Thessaly, 140, 142; 163;
painted pottery in, 216
Morgan, J. de, 46 n.

Mordake, pot from, 124, 173,
Pl. 16. 9

Mouflon, ancestor of domesticated
sheep, 58-60

Muller, M. H., 48
Muller, S., 49, 162
Mughem, tumuli at, 23, 100
Muller up, great bog of, 31, 32. See
also Maglemosean
Munro, R., 48
Murray, M. A., 200
Mycenean culture, 142, 209-10
Myres, J. L., 155

Mytilus edulisy evidence from, 25, 26

Nakadah, burials at, 187
Narvik, rock engravings, 212
Navarro, J. M. de, 211
Naxos, emery from, 189
Necklaces, 6, 21, 22
Needles, 6, 36, 119, Pl. 13. 4, 196
Neoanthropic Man, 99
Neolithic civilisation, 3, 50-101;
races, 98-101; typology, ch. IV;
culture in Eastern Area, ch. V;
culture in Northern and Western
Areas, ch. vi; culture in England,
170-83; in Africa, 186
New Grange, tumulus, 226, 230
Nostvet, Mesolithic industry at, 45
Nordhagen, H., 101
Nordic race, the, 99, 100-1
North Cray, industry at, 163 n.
Northern Area, the, described, 97;
celts of, 1045 pottery of, 124,
Pl. 17, 126; influence of, on
Eastern Area, 135, 136; culture
of, ch. VI

Norway, Mesolithic industry in, 45;
art in, 212-15

Notenschrifty pottery decoration, 122,
132

Oban, Azilian culture at, 10, 13, 56,
164, 165-6, 167

Obermaier, Dr H., 7, 12, 48, 194,
200, 222, 232

Obsidian, occurrence of, 16, 188,
191, 192

Ochre, use of, 12, 21, 22

Ofnet, Bavaria, burials at, 20-1, 100

Oltingen, Neolithic house at, 89
 INDEX

24O

Omalian industry, 124, 134, PI. 15.
it. 12, 159

Ornaments, 21, 22, 43, 136} in
Spanish dolmens, 195
Oronsay Island, Azilian culture on,
13, 164, 166-7
Osborn, H. F., 7

Ox, occurrence of, 22, 62-3, PL 6. 1,
199; in rock drawings, 223, 224,
230. See also Domestic animals

Pacheco, E. H., 232
Painted Pottery Folk, 142-3
Palaeolithic period, 3, 4, 5-7, 8,
51, 755 in the Baltic Area, 27-85
in Moravia, 39; domestic animals
in the, 56-7, 645 pottery in the,
65; tool-making in the, 67-8;
in China, 79; in England, 163-4,
174; art of the, 212, 215
Palliardi, J., 144

Palmella culture, in Spain, 193-4,
Pl. 25. 1-3

Palstaves, 202, Pl. 26. 5
Pamirs, the, 81; pass in, 82, 83
Paros, marble from, 188, 189
Parry, T. W., 101
Passage Graves, culture of, 89; pot-
tery of, 124; description of, 149,
Pl. 22. 2-4, 150; English, 151,
153; Spanish, 195, 1965 in Brit-
tany, 199
Patiri, G., 48
Peake, H., 211
Pears, Neolithic, 54
Pebbles, painted, 12-13, PI* 1
Peet, T. E., 211

Pena Tti, paintings and engravings
at, 218, 220, Pl. 27. 1
Penmaenmawr, quarry at, 70;

scratched lines at, 174, 216
Pennines, the, pigmy Bints from,
167-70

Peterborough, finds de cabanes near,
173

Petreny, Bessarabia, painted pottery
at, 138

Petrie, Sir Flinders, 84.fi., 186 n.

Picks, Asturian, 24, PL 1. 2; Neo-
lithic, 42, Pl. 5. <2,108-10, Pl. 10,9
Piette, E., 8, 48

Pig, occurrence of, 23, 255 “Tur-
bary,” 63; at Anau, 85
Pigmy flints, 15-20, 22, 23, 32,
36-7; in England, 38, 167-70; in
Kitchen middens, 45; in Jutland,
ib*\ in Africa, 185; in Spain, 194.
See also Tardenoisean
Pile-dwellings, see Lake dwellings
Pins, Bronze Age, 206, Pl. 26
Plough, Neolithic, 54-5, 118, PL
13. 2; in rock drawings, 223, 224,
230, PL 28. 1

Poland, pigmy industries in, 16;
Tardenoisean culture in, 18;
Maglemosean culture in, 27, 39
Pole’s Wood South, barrow at, 176
Poppy, Neolithic, 54
Portugal, Mesolithic industries in,
13 n., 18; megaliths in, 151,
194-6; rock shelters in, 217, 218
Potter’s wheel, evidence of, 86, 188,
190

Pottery, criterion of, 2, 3, 9, 22, 23,
26; “comb,” 31, 124, 154-5; in
kitchen middens, 40, 43; Cam-
pignian, 46, 47; Neolithic, 50,
64-7, 88, 122-8,^ 173, 185-95,
2x5-17; Palaeolithic, 65; painted,
79? 9°> 95? 138-43? 189, 216;
from Anau, 85-6; of the Eastern
Area, 122, Pl. 15, 126, 131-435
of the Northern Area, 124, PL 17,
126, 154; of the Western Area,
124, Pl. 16, 126, 153-4; corded
ware, 126, 135; Butmir, 143,
PL 215 Camp de Chassey, 159,
Pl. 16. 4-7, 11, 12; Egyptian,
186-7; Cretan, 188; from Greece,
/&.; Mesopotamian, 189; in Asia
Minor, 190; in Italy, 191; in
Malta and Gozo, 191; in Sar-
dinia, 192; in Spain, 192-4; PL
25.1-3, 222; Copper Age, 195-6,
200; Bronze Age, 197, 206, Pl. 265
Aegean, 209-10
 INDEX

24I

Pottier, E., 144, 231
Pousthomy, “menhir idol” at, 231
Prescelly, blue stone from, 178
Pullenhofen, climatic changes at, 76
Pumpelly, R., 72, 85, 86
Puydt, M. de, 73, 101

Quine, J., 184

Quy, implement from, 116, PI. 11.

11

Races, Neolithic, 98-101
Rahir, E., 48

Rakhmani, Thessaly, pottery at,
142

Rapiers, Bronze Age, 205, Pl. 26
Rathkenny, engravings at, 228
Ravensburg, climatic changes at, 76
Reach Fen, celt from, 103, PI. 8. 5
Reindeer, occurrence of, 10, 19, 30,
39, 75j painting of, 214
Reinerth, H., 144

Religion, Sumerian, 210-115 and
art, 223; and idols, 230-1
Remedello, Bronze Age culture at,
208

Remouchamps, Belgium, Tardenoi-
sean site, 15, 19
Ridgeway, Sir W., 101
Ripple ware, 188

RSssen pottery, 122, Pl. 15. 5, 7, 13,
I33>   i56

Romanelli (Otranto), cave at, 18
Rouzic, Z. le, 232
Rushford, implement from, 120
Russia, pigmy industries in, 165 and
painted pottery, 1385 Battle Axe
Folk in, 156, 157; 188; rock
drawings in, 224

St Gertrude, Maestricht, flints from,
71-2, 174

St Nicholas (Cardiff), chambered
tomb at, 89

Saint-Sernin, “menhir idol” at, 231
San Dalmazo, rock drawings near,
223, Pl. 28. 1
Sarasin, F., 48, 231

Sarauw, G., 49
Sardinia, culture of, 192
Scandinavia, and Maglemosean cul-
ture, 27, 39; and Shell Mound
culture, 45; Neolithic implements
from, 104, 108, 113; megaliths in,
150, 151; rock drawings in, 212-
15, 224. See also Sweden, Nor-
way

Schipenitz, Bukowina, painted pot-
tery at, 138, 140, 142
Schist idols, in Spain, 195, 196, 220,
230-1, Pl. 29, 6. 8
Schmidt, R. R., 49
Schr&nil, J., 211

Scodand, implements from, 182.

See also Oban and Oronsay
Scrapers, Neolithic, 110-12, PL 10.

3? 4? $> 10

Scunthorpe (Lines.), pigmy tools at,
170, Pl. 24. D

Seistan, 835 and the Sumerians, 210
Serpents, on megalithic monuments,
199, 226

Sess Kilgreen, design on tumulus at,
199, 226, PL 29. 2
Settle, see Victoria Cave
Sevenoaks, pigmy industry near,

refractory the hard rock is. Sometimes only two legs
are figured, sometimes four, but even in the latter case
there is no attempt at perspective. Often a peculiar
method is employed and the lines representing the legs
are produced till they meet the line of the back. Only
one or two instances of painting are known, which is
not surprising as paint cannot sink into these hard rock
surfaces and is therefore liable to suffer damage from
weathering action, although, on the other hand, it is
saved from the dangers which attend the disintegration
of rock surfaces due to the action of lichens and
other rock-growing plants. A goo d example of paintings
of this group can be seen in a small rock shelter which
is situated almost opposite where the road coming over
from the head of Langford meets the Sundalsfjord.
The paintings are in red and represent reindeer, etc.,
but are not very well drawn. Further north at a site
called Leka some little conventionalised human figures,
also painted in red, have been observed.

Attempts have been made to connect this art with
that of the Laplanders, but though perhaps it is not fair
to compare art techniques when used on such differ-
ent surfaces as rock and bone, it can safely be said that
the Lap technique, as seen in the engravings on pieces
of bone, etc., has little in common with that of the
Norwegian group that we have been describing.

No similar finds elsewhere have been recorded and
it would seem likely that we are dealing with an isolated
manifestation of art made by folk belonging to the
Arctic culture; why and for what purpose they were made
is completely unknown. At a later time Bronze Age
folk inhabited the district, at any rate around Trond-
hjem, and at Bardal the art of these new people is found
superimposed on examples of the older group. Probably
 ART

2'5

the Arctic culture people became extinct or were ab-
sorbed by the new comers, unless it should prove that
some distant connection between them and the Laps of
to-day can be clearly determined.

NEOLITHIC AND EARLIEST METAL AGE ART

Two groups can be distinguished in the Neolithic
and Copper Age art: the first comprises decorated
objects, such as pots or tools, etc., and the second
drawings on rocks or in rock shelters which are, how-
ever, of rare occurrence. The first of these groups has
been largely discussed in chapter iv, and it is only
necessary here to remind readers of the extremely fine
and well-drawn patterns on the beautifully made pots
of Early Neolithic date in the Eastern Area, or, again,
of the elaborate decoration on the collar flasks of
Scandinavia, not to speak of the complicated and ex-
tremely decorative motifs found at the end of Neolithic
times for them to realise that Neolithic man was not
in the least devoid of artistic sense. Prehistorians are
rather apt, after studying the wonderful cave art of
Upper Palaeolithic man, to underrate the powers and
the artistic appreciation of his Neolithic successor, but
this is largely due to the fact that the Neolithic decora-
tion of pots consisted exclusively, or almost exclusively,
of finely drawn geometric patterns. Naturalistic draw-
ings of animals were not employed as motifs, as on the
rounded surface of a pot they would not only have been
exceedingly difficult to execute, but also not particularly
adaptable. In the Mediterranean area, at that time
always far in advance of northern Europe in culture,
it was not till Late Minoan (Bronze) times that plants
and other natural objects were employed as motifs for
decoration.
 ART

2l6

One or two chipped pieces of rock marked with
rough geometric patterns have been found at the stone
factory site at Penmaenmawr in North Wales. That
Neolithic man was not incapable of drawing a natural-
istic figure of an animal when he wanted, can be seen
in the drawing of a fish on a cork float (a) found by the
Lake of Lucerne, figured in Plate 25, no. 4; and a fish,
though very poorly executed,can be recognised engraved
on a polished piece of greenstone now in the Museum
at Carnac, Brittany (Plate 25, no. 5).

Neolithic man was also capable of painting his pots
before firing so that the paint cannot be removed by
friction or washing. Although this painting decoration,
as far as Europe is concerned, is only found in certain
circumscribed localities at the very end of Neolithic or
rather at the dawn of the Copper Age, it was probably
practised in the very earliest times, for we find painted
pottery in the earliest levels at Anau in Russian Turkes-
tan, and Neolithic painted pottery has been described
from the loess in China. Although the folk who made
the wonderful painted pots found in the bottom layers
at Susa(3), as well as the people of Abu Shahrein
(=Eridu, Mesopotamia) ana other places who have
left us examples of their workmanship, probably of
Pre-Sumerian times (4), knew about the use of metal, it
must be remembered that in these areas by the great
rivers Euphrates and Tigris the use of metal dates back
to extremely early times, far earlier than was the case
in northern Europe; and, on the other hand, little is
known as to an earlier true Neolithic stage of culture
in these regions. In Moravia, at the end of Neolithic
times, a painted pottery was developed, but in this case
the paint was not fired with the pot and can be removed
by friction. The oft mentioned pottery figurines of
 ART

217

humans and animals are naturally of great importance
(Plates 20, 21 and 29, no. 5). Bronze Age pottery
continued to be decorated with incised geometric
patterns and painting developed to a high degree in the
Aegean area. Even metal tools are sometimes found
decorated with zigzag or lozenge patterns.

ROCK SHELTER ART

An extremely interesting art-group that occurs in
rock shelters belonging to the Late Neolithic and
Copper Age periods has been studied in the Spanish
Peninsula(s). Although it occurs sporadically over a
great part of South Spain where natural rock shelters
in limestone or sandstone occur and conditions are
favourable, it can be more or less grouped into distinct
areas. The first of these areas is in the extreme south-
west of Spain, and is the tract of country bounded by
the sea coast and an artificial line drawn from Malaga
to Seville and Cadiz. The examples are especially
numerous around the Laguna de la Janda where a few
years ago M. Breuil and the writer explored nearly
sixty sites. Another area is in Murcia and Almeria,
South-East Spain, with a focus at Velez Blanco, a little
village some sixty miles or so west of Murcia. Here
examples of this Copper Age art (often called Spanish
Art Group III) come in contact with a naturalistic group
( Spanish Art Group II) probably dating back to Quater-
nary times and contemporary with, though different in
technique from the well-known Upper Palaeolithic cave
paintings of France or Spain. It is interesting to note,
as a proof of the relative ages, that where examples of
these two groups, easily differentiated by their vastly
different techniques, are found in one and the same
rock shelter, if superposition occurs examples of Spanish
 2X8

ART

Art Group III are invariably painted over and are there-
fore younger than examples of Spanish Art Group II.
Painted rock shelters have been discovered in the Sierra
Morena, and in the chains of mountains that connect it
with the high land of South-East Portugal. An analogous
art has been found in some rock shelters in the well-
known valley of Las Batuecasm, mentioned by Borrow
in his Bible in Spain as being a mysterious and dreaded
place, though whether this was due to its lonely position
or to legends and traditions dating as far back as Copper
Age times when the paintings were being made, cannot
of course be determined. Las Batuecas lies to the south-
west of Salamanca. In North Spain few examples of
Copper Age paintings have been recognised, with the
exception of an anomalous find at Pena Tti, to be
described later.

This art-group, as a whole, is highly conventionalised
and especially noteworthy for the large number of
geometric patterns, including in one instance the spiral,
and the variety of conventionalisations of the human
form. Some of these are figured in Plate 30; they are
important as they help to show the connection between
the interesting Copper Age culture of the southern
Spanish Peninsula with that of regions elsewhere.
Besides conventionalised human beings, a number of
still more conventionalised animals can be recognised,
including stag, hind, ibex and carnivorous animals
whose species it is difficult to determine. At Las Figuras
near the Laguna de la Janda a large number of birds
are also figured, but, with the exception of one example
in a rock shelter in the Sierra Morena, they do not
appear in the drawings elsewhere. At the same site
is portrayed the figure of a man having in his hand what
seems from its shape to be a metal axe, but on the other
 ART

219

hand at Los Molinos, a site near Velez Blanco, there is
another example portraying equally clearly a stone axe,
and examples of this can be duplicated from Bacinete,
a site not far from Los Barrios in the region of Gibraltar.
At the rock shelter of Los Letreros (Velez Blanco)
a man is figured carrying a sickle in each hand. Judging
by their size, relative to the human figure, they would
seem to be wooden sickles hafted with flints, and not
metal sickles, which, owing to the value of the metal,
were always relatively very small in the Early Metal
Ages. That the folk who made these paintings practised
the domestication of animals is shown by a very charm-
ing example found at Las Canforras de Penarrubia in
the Sierra Morena of an animal being led by a halter.
In the district to the west of the Sierra Morena, lying
between it and Portugal, can be seen some very inter-
esting paintings of wheeled vehicles<7). The paintings
consist of two more or less converging lines with cross-
bars between them, and these converging lines, after
joining, are continued as one line indicating the central
shaft of the vehicle. Two or sometimes four wheels
are indicated by round circles placed just outside these
lines. It is as if the vehicle had been laid out flat, with
the wheels spread on the ground, and was viewed from
above. Exactly the same type of farm cart can be seen
used by the peasants in parts of Spain to-day. The
wheels depicted usually show four spokes, forming
two diameters of the circle at right angles; but in one
instance they are formed by one diameter to the wheel
and two chords at right angles to this diameter, thus
dividing the wheel into three sections (Plate 27, no. 3).
A somewhat similar type of spoking is still used to-day.
At Las Batuecas (Estramadurajw the art is not quite
analogous to that further south, and more than one
 220

ART

series of different ages can be determined by a study of
their superposition. The lowest is considerably more
naturalistic and it may be that this is earlier in date
than the art we have been discussing, being possibly
true Neolithic or even Azilian. Drawings of comb-
shaped figures can be matched with similar finds in
the south-west of Spain and are common in the latest
examples of art at La Pileta cave near Rhonda(s). The
anomalous example of Pena Tu already mentioned is
extremely important^). If the student alights at the
little station of Vidiago on the narrow gauge railway
from Santander to Llanes (Asturias), he will find, on
looking westward, that the sea shore is close by on his
right hand, while on his left the ground rises rapidly
forminga firstfoot-hill of the PicosdeEuropa massif. On
the top of this first ridge is a large and very visible
block of rock standing up rather like a small Dartmoor
tor. On one side it is heavily undercut by natural action,
and it is here that the paintings have been preserved.
They consist of innumerable red dots, a few very
poorly made animal figures, some simple conventional-
ised human forms, and a sword, evidently metal, deeply
engraved, with five rivet holes near the handle shown
in red; there is also a large coffin-shaped idol, partly
painted, partly also deeply engraved, this is best de-
scribed by reference to Plate 27, no. 1. Pena Tti is the
only site in this group where engraving has been em-
ployed in conjunction with painting, and it forms a link
with the punctuations, the poorly drawn animals and
the conventionalised human beings of the regular
Spanish Art Group III art on the one hand, and with the
carved and painted schist idols in the funeral furniture
of the megalithic tombs on the other. The presence of
the long triangular sword or dagger indicates an Early
 3

Plate 27. 1* Rock shelter art at Pena Tu (Spain). 2. Rock carving at Clonfinlough (Ireland),
3. Fainting of a wheeled cart from the Spanish Art Group III. 4, Rock carvings similar to 2
but from Galicia (Spain).

ART   221
 222

ART

Metal Age. In North-West Spain Dr Obermaier has
studied in the province of Galicia a series of rock
carvings(io). These are deeply cut on hard rocks and
can be divided into an older and newer series. Although
Dr Obermaier suggests a Bronze Age for both series
it may be possible to date the earlier as belonging to the
Copper Age culture. Figures of the human form con-
ventionalised as well as other geometric figures occur
and though not exactly similar would appear to have
relationships with Spanish Art Group III. The art
of the older series closely recalls that on the stone at
Clonfinlough (Athlone), Ireland. The newer series in
Galicia is far more developed than the older; it must
probably be referred to the full Bronze Age. Some
semi-naturalistic figures of animals are occasionally
found.

But Pena Til is not alone in supplying us with a clue
to the age of this art-group. Engravings on pots, with
figures of stag and human beings in exactly the same
technique as those painted on the rock shelters in South
Spain, have been found at Las Millares, at Velez
Blanco itself and at Ciempozuelos near Madrid (Plate
25, nos. 1, 2, 3) (ix), where these pots can be definitely
assigned to the full Copper Age of the Spanish Penin-
sula.

Why the Copper Age folk took such trouble in
decorating certain natural rock shelters, is difficult to
determine. That they were not “homes” is proved by
the fact that examples occur in rock shelters and situa-
tions where nobody could possibly have lived. Broadly
speaking, though not invariably, the more important
sites command a very extensive view and are often found
near springs of fresh water. In one case at Gabal near
Velez Blanco, where a rock shelter probably was used
 ART

2 23

as a home, the paintings are not in the rock shelter
itself, but in a niche above the doorway extremely
difficult to get at, and a somewhat similar state of
affairs is also known elsewhere. Possibly they were
not all drawn for the same purpose, and in some cases
they may have been a magic protection for the home, in
others the decoration of some very visible spot that for
various reasons had become a sacred sanctuary and
where perhaps religious observances took place.

Another very interesting group of rock drawings
occurs in the Maritime Alps not far from San Dalmazo («)
on the modern frontier between Italy and France. They
are found on the slopes of and near by Monte Bego,
which mountain and the Grand Capulet form two very
striking peaks visible from the railway between Nice and
Antibes. Col di Tenda, at the head of the Roja valley,
was probably used from the very earliest times by
people passing from the sea coast area of the district
around Ventimiglia to the plains of Piedmont behind.
Between Monte Bego and Grand Capulet lie the lakes
of “wonders,” and it is near these that many of the
engravings in question occur. The figures drawn in-
clude bulls with very exaggerated horns, other horned
animals, men, possibly villages, spirals, geometric
patterns, and weapons, such as small triangular daggers
with tongues, etc. (Plate 28, Fig. 1). Ploughing
scenes are also depicted, there being two, more rarely
four, oxen yoked, and sometimes one, sometimes two
men hold the other end of the plough. Their date
would seem to be some time at the beginning of the
Metal period; whether Bronze was known and in use
for tool-making is uncertain. The technique is a shallow
pecking out of the surface of the figure, probably with
a sharp stone chisel or pointed tool. But the peculiarity
 ART

224

of this so-called Fontanalba art-group is that all the
drawings are made as if seen from above; they are, as
it were, aeroplane pictures of what is going on down
below. Thus in the case of what seem to be drawings
of villages we just find the plan of a house with the open
court yard and the surrounding wall, but no elevation.
The makers of these drawings apparently watched what
was going on far below them and then just engraved
what they had seen. Why they should have done so is
a complete mystery. The plough scenes are of particular
interest, the only engravings at all analogous being a
plough scene, also with oxen, from the Bronze Age
Scandinavian group in Bohuslain (13), a district lying to
the north of Gothenburg (Sweden), where drawings of
ships, men, weapons and signs occur in the greatest
profusion and a ploughing scene and a cavalry battle
are also depicted. More than 500 sites, where these
drawings occur, have been discovered. They date to
the Bronze Age and, although the motive for their
creation is unknown, it is obvious when the hard nature
of the glacier-worn rock surfaces on which they are
carved is taken into account that a very considerable
amount of work was expended in their production. This
art-group had a fairly wide distribution in Scandinavia
and an “outlier” of it has been found in North Russia
on the eastern shore of Lake Onega(i4).

ART ON AND IN TOMBS
Not infrequently we find very rough drawings on
menhirs and other upright stones. These are mostly
geometric though sometimes what are probably meant
to be human beings, conventionalised into sort of cross-
shaped figures, and rough figures of animals, have
been noted. A good example is a small kist tomb near
 ART

Plate 28. Fig. 1. Rock carvings from the Maritime Alps of Early Metal Age.
9, Fig. 2. Rock carvings from Norway belonging probably to the
“Arctic” culture.

B'

*5
 ART

22 6

The old transitional Tardenoisean culture, with the
addition of the trapeze and a knowledge of pottery,
long survived, and was replaced by an industry with
polished stone axes. That the folk of this time were
already wealthy is evidenced by the find of a gold
diadem in the cave of Los Murcielagos near Albunol
in the province of Granada. Two Copper Age periods
followed, each capable of sub-division locally and differ-
ing to a certain extent in various parts of the country.
The pottery was already well made and the stone
industries, including arrow heads and the like, show
very considerable skill. In the full Copper Age, or
second period, often named Palmella culture, we have
 THE COPPER AGE

193
 194 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

well-made pots engraved with figures of convention-
alised stags and human beings (Plate 25, nos. 1, 2, 3).
These correspond closely to the paintings in Spanish
Art Group III described in chapter x. The best-known
sites that have yielded this engraved pottery are Los
Millares and Las Carolinas just south of Madrid near
Ciempozuelos (Plate 25, no. 3).

The tombs of this period are of very considerable
importance (. Certain peculiar developments that occur
have already been described in chapter vi; there are
also artificial caves, as at Palmella itself, which have
been used as tombs. It is the southern part of the
peninsula with which we are now mostly concerned
and here influences from the eastern Mediterranean
made themselves felt. In the north the types and
developments of megalithic constructions are of the
normal Western Area variety and show clear connections
with France. Thanks to the explorations of Siret,
Obermaier, and a number of Spanish investigators, it
has been found possible to make out a sequence for the
megalithic monuments of the southern area, which
includes parts of South Portugal, as follows:

END OF TRUE NEOLITHIC AGE

At this time we find:

1.   Precursors of the true dolmens in the form of
rectangular boxes or circular enclosures. No lid, if
there ever was one, has survived. Little tumulus exists
over the construction.

2.   Simple chamber dolmens constructed of rough
flags of a quadrangular or polygonal shape.

In both types are found stone celts with massive
round shafts; ordinary Neolithic flint tools and some
pigmies; points, awls and chisels of bone; simple
 THE COPPER AGE

*95

pottery (cups and beakers) with a few circles or pointille
engraved on them. A few poorly made ornaments such
as bored teeth, shells or fragments of bone, etc., occur.

3.   Dolmens with small entrances and little covered
galleries, their contents being the same as before only
of better workmanship. Armlets made from Pectunculus
shell. The first appearance of a simple form of schist
idol.

EARLY COPPER AGE

1.   Large passage graves.

2.   Big roofed galleries (the latter often of trapezoid
shape), their contents being celts frequently made from
choice stone; flint arrow heads trimmed over their
whole surface, often with tangs and basal wings; large
fine dagger blades; pottery with rich linear decoration
—geometric pattern, wavy lines or spirals, etc.—the
first appearance of bell beakers; beads of callais; schist
idols; amulets of animal phalanges. In the south of the
peninsula copper now appears for the first time.

FULL COPPER AGE

(Two zones—one in the south; the other in the
north.) In the south or rather south-west zone we find:

1.   Cupola dolmens with or without entrance galleries
or interior annexes.

2.   Ordinary dolmens with entrances and covered
galleries.

At the beginning of this time the change in building
referred to in chapter vi appears. Formerly, as has been
said, the uprights of the chamber and gallery supported
the roof, but now the excavation method is employed.
Locally, however, the simple passage grave with the
old technique continues to exist.
 196 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

The contents of the dolmens are similar to those last
enumerated. Besides these we find well-made little
votive celts; fine daggers and blades of flint; arrow
heads, some with long tangs and tail-like basal wings,
either willow or reed shaped; bone beads and round-
eyed needles; tools and weapons of copper—flat axes
and blades; pottery of the Ciempozuelos type with bell-
beakers, the decoration purely geometric or figurative—
sun pictures, conventionalised animals, eye ornaments,
etc. (Plate 25, nos. 1-3). Painted vessels are rare. We
also find beads, etc., of gold, silver, copper, gilded lead,
ivory, amber, amethyst, turquoise, callais; armlets of
ivory or thin stone plates; palettes; ointment jars;
human-shaped flat idols of stone; schist idols, often with
rich engravings of rough representations of humans—
frequently painted; cone-shaped idols of alabaster, lime-
stone, etc.; idols made from phalange bones, often
richly painted or engraved.

In the north zone we find:

1.   Short passage graves.

2.   Kist-shaped chambers.

The contents are more or less similar to those of the
last list, the finely worked flint arrow heads, sometimes
tanged and with basal wings, sometimes leaf-shaped,
being specially numerous. There are fairly rich copper
finds; pottery slightly decorated with patterns of Ciem-
pozuelos type; bell beakers; beads of stone and mussel
shell; small ornaments of gold, silver, copper, amber.
Rare examples of trephining have been noted.

EARLY BRONZE AGE

In this we find small stone kists with covering lids.
The contents of the kists show a falling off in the flint
industry, but are rich in copper tools along with which
 THE COPPER AGE

197

bronze becomes more frequent. We find awls, chisels,
thin flat axes with curved edges, sword blades and
triangular daggers, rings and armlets. Also plain
matt pottery of the El Argar type, as well as square-
shaped bone beads and ornaments of gold, silver and
amber.

The finding of beakers in Spain at such a very early
date is naturally of first-class importance, and it is
believed that the peninsula was actually the cradle of
this mysterious and elusive people. Their subsequent
wanderings carried them and their pots over most of
Europe and as far east as Hungary. They spread north-
wards to Brittany and perhaps via the pass of Belfort
down the Rhine to our own country. They crossed to
Italy and probably attained Central Europe via the
Brenner Pass. Naturally some modifications in pot type,
etc., occur in different districts; thus the pots at Carnac
are not quite the same as those of England, and in
Bohemia (?) handled cups develop, these in turn being
distributed over an area far outside their original home.
The Beaker folk were round-headed and burials were
by inhumation.

Spain was doubtless very important to the progressive
eastern Mediterranean cultures from its having metal
ores, and it is surprising to note the failure of this
brilliant cradle of culture to develop further. The early
Bronze Age (El Argar) culture proved to be of some
importance and spread to Italy, but from that time
onwards Spain for long ceased to count. One is tempted
to wonder whether the hardy and by now skilful mariner
from Crete may not have penetrated even beyond Spain,
and whether we should not look to him as the cause of
the great developments that took place in South Brittany
in Early Metal Age times ? Although the cultures found
 198 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

at Carnac point to a limited use of metal, there is no
reason to consider that the date is anything far anterior
to that of the Early Bronze Age in Crete; the occurrence
of tin ores in Brittany, not to speak of callais and other
products, might well tempt the Mediterranean merchant.
Much has been written by some authors of the influ-
ence of Phoenician traders in very early times; it may
be that further discoveries will substitute the word
Cretan for Phoenician in the prehistoric periods at the
dawn of the Metal Age in northern Europe.

Should the above really represent a true state of
affairs then the anomalous and splendid development of
culture in the south of Brittany—especially near Carnac
—becomes explicable, and as it would have owed its
origin to the Mediterranean influence this is the place
to give a brief description of it rather than when the
Neolithic of the Western Area was under review.
French prehistorians have long classed the finds at
Carnac as Late Neolithic, but metal has been found
and the Age is really Copper or Early Bronze. The
modern village of Carnac lies some two or three miles
from the sea in sight of the long peninsula of Quiberon.
The surrounding district is poor, from an agricultural
point of view, and there is but little depth of soil. But
what it lacks in fertility is made up in the interest of
its prehistoric remains, and the whole country-side must
have been a sacred area, being more than rich in men-
hirs, cromlechs, alignments, dolmens, and other com-
plicated megalithic tombs. To the eastward lies the
shallow Morbihan Sea full of islands, and there is direct
evidence of land submergence since “ Carnacian” times,
there being several menhirs and cromlechs that are now
no longer above high-water level. The menhirs are of
the usual kinds and are often of immense size. The
 THE COPPER AGE

199

alignments are world-famous and have been described
in chapter vi. It is interesting to note that the align-
ments at Carnac cross, without regard, over an earlier
burial marked by a menhir which is out of line with
the smaller menhirs forming the main alignment. Such
a definite sequence is important though naturally it
does not indicate that all single menhirs are necessarily
early. Cromlechs and dolmens are of the usual type and
much in the way of funeral furniture has been recovered
in spite of the fact that a large number of the monuments
had been long known and pillaged. Owing to the
scarcity of soil the artificial earth mounds previously
covering the tombs were of great importance to agri-
culturists. Simple and complicated passage graves occur
—the most famous being that of St Michel, near the
modern village of Carnac overlooking the alignments
of Menec, where there is a complicated series of cham-
bers and passages. Apparently a person of great im-
portance was buried here with perhaps his servants
and oxen. Some metal was also discovered therein.
Many of these megalithic buildings have rough carvings
on them. These include serpents—said to be drawn in
connection with polished celts, a conventional octo-
pus (?) looking in reality rather like a shield, so-
called waving corn, etc. In one instance, in a tomb at
Gavr’inis, an island in the Morbihan Sea, there is a
design closely resembling that on a tumulus grave at Sess
Kilgreen in Ireland. Probably Gavr’inis was actually
an Irish colony in Brittany. Among the natural pro-
ducts of South Brittany is a very fine bluish-green
serpentine rock and finely polished celts of a very late
type are found far and wide made from this material;
which seems to have been a favourite article of commerce,
though not rivalling the well-known honey-coloured
 200 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES

flint of Grand Pressigny. Two such celts have been
found for example near Cambridge.

But it was not only through Spain that the progressive
cultures of the eastern Mediterranean reached northern
Europe. Direct intercourse between Cyprus and Troy on
the one hand and Hungary on the other is proved by the
finding of southern types of tools in the north. This
commerce seems further to have introduced the copper
worker of Hungary to the tin producer of Bohemia,
and the result was naturally fertile in progress. The
bell beaker folk added their quota and there arose in
these lands the so-called Marschwitz culture with its
handled cups, etc. that just preceded the true Bronze
Age. Flat graves containing contracted bodies occur
and the funeral furniture includes eastern types of
battle axes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   E. A. W. Budge. Egypt. (Home University Series.)

(2)   H. R. Hall. * Aegean Archaeology. 1914.

(3)   H. R. Hall. “The Excavations of 1919....” Man, 1925,1. See

also V. G. Childe, The Most Ancient East. 1928.

(4)   Dorpfeld. Troja uni Ilios. 1902.

(5)   See bibliography (1) at end of chapter v.

(6)   M. A. Murray. Excavations in Malta. 1923. Miss Murray

gives a number of plates illustrating her finds and the whore
forms a convenient volume. Most of the excavation in Malta,
however, and its subsequent publication is due to the labours of
Professor T. Zammit.

(7)   N. Aberg. La Civilisation LUniolithique dans la Pininsule Ibirique.

1921.

(   H. Obermaier. “Die Dolmen Spaniens.” Mitt.d. Anth.Gesellsck.

in Wien, Band l, 1920.
 CHAPTER IX

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE
BRONZE AGE CULTURES

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. True bronze
contains io per cent, of the latter metal and is a
harder and tougher material than copper itself and
therefore more useful for the purpose of tool and
weapon making.

No hard and fast line can be drawn between the
Copper and Bronze cultures of Europe; the alloy was
not introduced by invading warriors from outside, but
appears as an autochthonous development. That copper
could be hardened by the addition of other metals—
tin, antimony, etc.—had already been discovered in the
Copper Age and apparently many experiments were
tried before standard bronze was evolved. Cultural
developments were not uniform all over Europe and
it is near tin producing areas—tin ores are rarer than
those of copper—that the earliest true Bronze Age
industries develop. As formerly, however, the eastern
Mediterranean area was the most progressive and the
use of bronze started earlier there than in northern
Europe, the necessary tin being obtained through an
extensive commerce, which incidentally introduced
many objects from the Aegean into the northern lands
and helped to forward the new culture there.

The Bronze Age can be divided into four periods,
the earliest being called Bronze I and the latest Bronze
IV. In some districts, e.g. East Anglia, only two periods
can be clearly demonstrated; the sharp dividing line is
always between Bronze IV and the earlier periods co.
The periods are demonstrated partly on stratigraphical,
 202   PRELIMINARY NOTES ON

but largely on typological grounds, the evolution of
various tools being determined. An outline study of
the development of some of the more important im-
plements1 * will therefore be necessary before proceeding
further, stress naturally being laid on types belonging
to the earlier periods, as Bronze IY is really outside
the purview of this bookco.

CELTS

One of the commonest tool families is that of the
Celt. It commences in the Copper Age and its evolu-
tion can be seen by reference to Plate 26, nos. 1—9.
At first the shape is that of a simple chisel—usually
made of copper—and the tool is clearly derived from
the stone celt. Next side ridges appear, doubtless to
keep the tool in place when hafted, and in this connec-
tion there also grows a transverse ridge, called a stop
ridge, which prevents the haft being pushed down too
far. Thus there develops the so-called “Palstave”3 * * * * *
(Plate 26, no. 5). But side by side with this there was
evolved the winged type, where the side ridges increase
to such an extent that they bend over and. meet. At
first the wings appear at the middle of the celt, later at
the butt end (Plate 26, nos. 6 and 7). The winged
type is a continental development and from it the

1 Chance finds of bronze tools occur, especially near such places as

convenient fords where trackways converged. Implements are found
too in burials and also form hoards—these being formerly the “capital’9

of an individual or the stock in trade of a merchant. The so-called

Wilburton hoard—preserved to-day in the Cambridge Museum of

Archaeology and Ethnology—may be taken as an example. Apparently

it was being transported across a mere when the boat capsized: the tools

were preserved in the peat below.

% Side rings for attachment purposes are often found in several

types of celt.
 

furniture, and the industries, comprising as they do
tools useful for extraction of the raw material in the
mines themselves and their subsequent rough trimming
at the “floors” or factory sites, would lead us to expect
rather unusual types of tools. There is really nothing
peculiarly Palaeolithic, Neolithic types occur and the
fauna is modern. At the Cissbury mines a chalk lamp
was discovered placed on a shelf of chalk so as to light
the miner at his work.

For Neolithic burials we must turn to the so-called
“Long Barrows”(i4) which occur most frequently in
the counties of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire and their
surrounding districts. Such barrows are elongated oval
mounds frequently pointing east and west, being higher
and broader at the eastern end. The body or bodies
were placed in a chamber built of large blocks of stone
and approached by a similarly built passage with some-
times a door or portal on the outside. In other words
we are dealing with the “passage grave” or its deriva-
tive. A good example of a long barrow occurs at West
Kennet near Avebury (Wiltshire). Here the barrow,
336 feet long by 75 feet wide at the eastern end, was
originally surrounded by a line of upright stones, the
intervals between which were filled up by horizontal
courses of dry-walling. Some of the stone slabs forming
the roof of the passage and chamber under the eastern
end of the barrow weighed about a ton each. Four
long-headed skeletons were found in the chamber, also
some scraps of Neolithic pottery. These four persons
may have been the original tenants of the barrow, but
unfortunately it must have been reopened, possibly
more than once, as apparently later pottery and other
bones were also found. In the Cotswolds the dry-
walling edging sometimes forms a heart-shaped rather
 176 FROM MESOLITHIC TO COPPER

than an oval ground-plan at the eastern end. Such a case
is “Hetty Pegler’s Tump” at Uley (Gloucestershire)
excavated by Dr Fry in 1821. Originally four chambers
opened from the central passage, 22 feet long, which
was terminated by a low portal only three feet high but
roofed by an enormous stone lintel 8 feet long and 41-
feet thick. This doorway is in the middle of the eastern
end, where the incurving heart-shaped walls meet.
Several skeletons of mixed dates were found—two of
the crania were sent to Guy’s Hospital museum. An
interesting fact about the skeletons found in these
barrows is that they do not seem to have been placed
there immediately after death. Indeed occasionally, as
at Pole’s Wood South (Gloucestershire), the chamber
is too small to have contained the complete bodies of
the skeletons had they been so interred. In other words
these tombs were in many cases mere ossuaries.
Cremation does not occur. It must be noted that some-
times one barrow contains several chambers, with
possibly incomplete passages, and that often the door-
way seems to have become merely symbolic as it has
sometimes been found as a purely external structure
leading to no chamber behind. Large stone doorways
to the chamber itself, pierced with a hole big enough to
admit a body and called “porthole” entrances, are feirly
common on the continent but rare in England. Fre-
quently the covering mound or tumulus has, to a greater
or less extent, disappeared, leaving the large stones
standing naked, thus giving a somewhat dolmen-like
impression. A Late Neolithic date is generally admitted
for these barrows, a few scraps of Neolithic pottery,
arrow heads and javelin points, but never metal, having
been found with the primary interments.

Another kind of barrow of circular form is frequently
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND

177

found in England. These are called “Round Barrows.”
They are, however, of later date often containing
cremation burials of a round-headed folk associated
with Bronze Age industries. They appear to correspond
with the stone kist as there is no passage to the internal
chamber which is generally completely closed. But all
megalithic monuments are not necessarily graves, even
though they may be connected therewith, and their
purposes have given rise to much speculation. Such
monuments are the stone circle at Avebury (Wiltshire),
the Deer Park near Sligo (Ireland) and of course the
classic example of Stonehenge, about which a few words
must now be saidcu).

Originally Stonehenge must have consisted of (1)
a surrounding earthwork circle approached from the
north-east by a similar avenue, (2) an outer circle of
local, so-called “sarcen” stones with lintels joining
their tops. These lintels were held in place by tenons
on the uprights and corresponding sockets on the under
surfaces of the crosspieces, while each lintel was secured
to its neighbour by a similar groove and ridge joint.
(3) an inner circle of smaller upright “blue stones”—
a rock foreign to the district, (4) five great sarcen tri-
lithons arranged to form a horseshoe, opening towards
the avenue. The largest central trilithon must have been
some 25 feet high, (5) an inner horseshoe of upright
“blue stones,” (6) the altar stone, a large recumbent
slab, 16 feet by 3 feet 4 inches, placed in the arch of
the “blue stone” horseshoe on the so-called axis. This
axis is an imaginary straight line passing from the centre
of the middle trilithon, through the centre of the circle
and out down the earthwork avenue. Unfortunately of
course a very large number of the stones are no longer
in position. Besides these stones belonging to the main

B

12
 178 FROM MESOLITHIC TO COPPER

building there are, or were, some half-dozen isolated
ones variously placed with reference to the circle. Of
these four, or rather two now existing ones and the holes
where two others must have been, are to be found just
within the surrounding earthwork. They are arranged
symmetrically, each occupying a position the same dis-
tance from the centre of the circle and each making an
angle of 22% degrees with that diameter of the building
which cuts the axis at right angles. Each pair thus
makes an angle of 45 degrees at the centre of the circle.
Then there are the “Slaughter Stone” and “Hele
Stone,” which stand in the avenue but not centrally.
There has been much unproductive controversy as to
the purpose of the latter. It now seems fairly certain
that the blue stones of which the inner circle and horse-
shoe are formed must have been brought from the
Prescelly mountains in Pembrokeshire. They are made
of a rock quite foreign to Wiltshire and Dr H. Thomas
says that no other area in Britain except Prescelly can
meet all the requirements necessary as a source of supply
for these Stonehenge megaliths(i6). Also it can hardly
be coincidence that the Prescelly neighbourhood is very
rich in stone circles, etc., and was clearly a sacred area.
As regards a possible date for the erection of Stone-
henge, opinions vary, some assigning it to the end of
the Neolithic or beginning of the Copper Age. No
tools really helpful for dating purposes have been found,
and we may dismiss, as not giving any conclusive
evidence, a small copper stain on a stone which was once
made much of by archaeologists. Neither does the
complete absence of metal tools prove a Neolithic date,
as even in the Copper Age such precious and somewhat
soft implements would hardly have been used for the
rough work of dressing the stones. Again various ere-
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   179

mations have been found around, in one case in the hole
for one of the four symmetrically placed stones men-
tioned above, and here, though the cremation is of a
later date than the Neolithic period, it is difficult to
deduce any satisfactory theory therefrom. Lastly the
all-important question of the direction of the axis must
be noted. It has often been observed by persons stand-
ing behind the central trilithon and looking down the
avenue that this axis seems to be directed to the point
on the horizon at which the midsummer sunrise takes
place. As a matter of fact this is not strictly so, and
observations and calculations as accurate as fallen stones,
etc. permit, have shown by how much it is incorrect.
But this point of the midsummer sunrise has for some
time been moving slowly eastwards at a rate approxi-
mately known, and it is therefore possible to arrive at
a date when the direction of the Stonehenge axis would
have been correct. Such a date is given as about
b.c. 1840 or, allowing for the maximum of possible
error, between b.c. 2040 and b.c. 1640. It is con-
sidered more than probable that the builders of the
monument did intend their axis direction to be correct,
and this may perhaps give us some clue as to the pos-
sible purpose of the building. Religiously it may have
marked the northern limit of the “Sun God’s” path,
or more practically, may have had calendar-like uses
very helpful to primitive agriculturists. At any rate
the vicinity of Stonehenge was long regarded as a sacred
area, for many barrows of the Bronze Age have been
discovered in the neighbourhood.

A distribution map of the Neolithic cultures
in England is very instructive, as we note how
dependent these folk were on forest growth. Sites occur
thickly on the sandy borders of the fen country in

12-2
 l8o FROM MESOLITHIC TO COPPER

Suffolk and Norfolk, where game of many kinds was
plentiful; agriculture was little practised, as is evidenced
by the almost complete absence of sickles. The hinter-
land on the “brecks” and warrens doubtless provided
a scanty but sufficient pasturage for the few flocks.
Even the valleys of the fen rivers were hardly occupied,
and the great mass of the country contains scarcely any
remains of these peopled). Most of the Midlands and
the western border of England proper were also un-
inhabited, and in Late Neolithic and Early Metal Age
times, when considerable movements of people took
place westwards, it was North and South Wales that
received independent contributions from the east, the
whole of the central district remaining barren. Doubt-
less these forest lands were unsuitable for human
existence in Neolithic times.

England was not wholly neglected by the Battle-Axe
folk and examples of their axes occur; but the chief
event that took place at the end of Neolithic times was
the arrival of a new folk called the Beaker people,
whom we have already mentioned in chapter v. Appa-
rently cradled in Spain the culture spread over large
parts of Europe, though the industries show certain
variations in different districts. It was our eastern
shores that were first invaded and the immigration
seems to have come by way of the Rhine. It is important
to note that the type of beaker found in Brittany is
absent or very rare in England and that it was certainly
not by that route that the culture was introduced into
this country. The invaders differed somewhat from the
former inhabitants of the land. The Neolithic folk
seem to have been of moderate stature, long-headed,
oval-faced, narrow-nosed, with small features. They
were not at all a powerfully built race. The new-comers
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   l8l

on the other hand—according to Abercrombyos)—
were characterised by a short square skull showing a
great development of the superciliary ridges and eye-
brows. The cheek-bones, nose and chin were prominent
and the powerful lower jaw was supplied with large
teeth. They were a tall, strongly built race and must
have presented—at any rate as far as the men were
concerned—a fierce, brutal appearance. The dead were
buried in round barrows, inhumation being practised.
They knew about the use of copper and introduced into
England the beaker type of pot (Plate 19). These are
often beautifully decorated by means of a sort of cogged-
wheel tool,the pattern running in zones round the pot. But
the ornamentation was also often incised with a pointed
instrument and combinations show beautiful and com-
plicated motifs. For the most part the beakers had no
handles, but a few handled cups ornamented with
characteristic decoration have been collected. These
may be connected with variations which were produced
in Central Europe in Beaker Age times. Abercromby
distinguishes three main types of beaker common in
England. Each of these types can in turn be sub-
divided—a matter of considerable local importance.
Although these people introduced copper, they still
manufactured most of their tools from flint, and scrapers,
arrow heads and the like—often beautifully made—
have been found. It is the opinion of the writer that
the glassy or waxy appearance often seen on some of
the finely made scrapers, “slugs,” etc., due to fine
ripple markings on each facet caused by the use of
pressure flaking technique, can be taken as indicating
the presence of the Beaker culture. This is sometimes
helpful in determining whether a given industry is to
be classed as of Neolithic or of Beaker Age. The glassy
 182 from mesolithic to copper

or waxy appearance on the tools was very marked in
the case of some Beaker Age interments in a barrow at
Barton Mills, excavated by Dr Cyril Fox in 1924(19).
It must not be considered, however, as a sine qua non
for all tools made by the Beaker folk. The immense
majority of English beakers, generally associated with
burials, are found in the eastern part of the island (so).
But examples are found in Wiltshire and in South
Wales, and a specimen has also been described from
Baroose farm, Lonan parish, Isle of Man—its unusual
flattened and decorated lip showing “Food vessel”
influence of the Bronze Age1. One or two have also
been discovered in Co. Down, Northern Ireland, and
some further examples have been found in North Wales
and a number in the Peak district. In East Anglia the
Beaker folk, as did their Neolithic forerunners, pre-
ferred the high sandy lands overlooking the fens where
food was easily obtainable, and it would seem that,
arriving as invaders, they in part displaced the older
inhabitants. It is in Beaker Age times that the fen
islands were for the first time inhabited properly, and
the theory that the old inhabitants were driven by the
new-comers to take up their abode in less favourable
and more fever-stricken quarters is plausible. Honey
Hill near Manea is a good site for studying this ques-
tion, as a rich industry, by all appearances contemporary
but comprising Beaker folk examples among the
numerous Neolithic types, has been collected there.
At various sites in Scotland, as for example the Culbin
sands and Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire), tiny scrapers
and well-made arrow heads, associated with “whorls”

1 Certain “scribed” stones have also been published. The carving
consists of a series of grooves intercrossing and running in all directions
over the rocks. A few more definite figures, including a spiral, do,
however, occur. No certain age can be assigned for this art group (ai).
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   183

and small polished celts, sometimes pierced with a small
hole for suspension purposes, have been found. The
date of these industries is uncertain, but a very early
Metal Age is probable. The Beaker folk never obtained
a permanent footing in this country; after a time they
simply seem to have merged with the older folk, though
their influence continued to affect the original Neolithic
stock which seems to have come again into its own.
This has been rather neatly shown by R. Smith, of the
British Museum, in a study of the evolution of a particular
kind of pot dating from the Bronze Age and called the
“Food vessel.” This is a peculiarly British type and
its origin can be clearly traced to aNeolithic ancestors).
Neolithic pottery is rare in England, though one or
two examples, recalling in shape a proto-type of the
Bronze Age “Food vessel,” have been dredged from
the Thames.

But England was not to be left completely isolated
to work out her own salvation. A fresh invasion, this
time of a bronze-using people practising cremation,
arrived on our shores, and the history of the country
passes off the stage set for this little book.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   L. Armstrong. £4Excavations at Mother Grundy’s Parlour,

Creswell Crags, Derbyshire.” Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst. vol. lv,
Jan.—June, 1925.

(2)   See bibliography (5) at end of chapter 1.

(3)   R. A. Bullen. Harlyn Bay. Padstow, 1912. A not very complete

account with little reference to the earlier Mesolithic industries.

(4)   J. B. Calkin. “Pygmy and other flint implements found at Peace-

haven.” Sussex Arch. Coll. vol. lxv.

The Neolithic civilisation introduced well-made polished
stone axes into western Europe. As has been noted,
these are not found in Mesolithic times and only begin
to appear, for example, in the upper layers (that is the
latest in date) of the shell mounds. These polished axes
or celts vary to a certain extent in shape, and a definite
evolution has been determined both for the Western
and Northern Areas. They have been described in
chapter iv.

Pottery was not unknown in certain Mesolithic
industries, as, for example, in the Kitchen Midden
and the Campignian, but with the coming of the true
Neolithic civilisation the use of pottery was extended.
Its manufacture was improved and a certain amount of
decoration added. This, in Mesolithic times, had been
of the very simplest, often merely a row or two of
imprints left by the finger on the soft clay before firing.

Neolithic pottery in the west, however, was not made
of such carefully prepared paste nor had it anything
like the beauty of form or design that we find eastwards,
 154 CULTURES OF THE NORTHERN

among the Danubian folk, nor can it be compared
with the beautiful contemporary productions of the
eastern Mediterranean cultures. In the Northern Area,
however, we can note the development of well-made
and well-decorated pots, especially towards the end of
the period. It is not fair to take the pottery of the early
Swiss Lake-Dwelling culture as an example of ceramic
art in Western Areas, as the Danubian culture itself
played a very large part in its development. Reference
should be made to chapter iv for shapes and decoration
motifs found in these areas.

NORTHERN AREAS)

In a previous chapter we have already noted the
presence in Scandinavia and the Baltic areas of the
Maglemosean culture replaced later by that of the
Kitchen Middens; the Maglemosean probably con-
tinued to exist and develop in the hinterland, away
from the coasts, and in other inhospitable regions, and
formed what we call to-day the Arctic culture. The
Kitchen Midden folk at an early date seem to have come
under two influences, the one from the Western Area,
which lay south of them, and the other perhaps from
the east, though the exact direction is unknown. The
former of these influences introduced the polished
stone axe of the basal type already described and the
idea of the megalithic tombs. The eastern development
introduced at an early date into the Northern Area the
so-called “comb” pottery, so named because its decora-
tion was done with a tool resembling a comb (Plate 17,
nos. 7, ix). However, as Aberg has pointed out to the
author, a “comb” decoration is not at all uncommon; it
is found on the pottery of the “Arctic” culture in Sweden
and Finland as well as in several sites in Central Europe,
 AND WESTERN AREAS   l $ $

etc. Nevertheless its appearance in the Northern Area
fairly early in Neolithic times denotes a definite outside
influence. Many prehistorians consider that there was
an actual migration of some people westwards from an
unknown cradle in northern Asia. Whether these in-
fluences alone were sufficient to develop the brilliant
Neolithic civilisation of the north, or whether there was
an actual replacement of inhabitants by new folks is
not yet determined. The development of the polished
stone celt and its association with various types of
megalithic tombs1 has been described in chapter iv.
Associated with this celt began to appear the battle axe,
whose connection will shortly be described. At the end
of Neolithic times are found the beautifully made stone
daggers and the large leaf-shaped javelin points that
can be seen in so many museums; they were doubtless
copies of metal weapons from the south.

From the end of Dolmen times onwards we have to
note the existence, side by side with the regular mega-
lithic tombs, of a new kind of burial in single-graves
containing one body each and ringed with or covered
by a heap of stones, the whole surmounted by a low
mound of earth. These were first found in Jutland
and were apparently due to the incursion of a new
and warlike people who introduced the battle axe. It
was not till after Passage-Grave times, however, that
they dominated the whole of the Northern Area.
German archaeologists consider that they were a native
growth in the north whence they spread far and wide,
dominating the folk of other areas when they came into
contact with them on the disappearance of the primaeval
forests of Central Europe. Professor Myres and his

1 These tombs in Scandinavia have yielded as many as five types
of skeletons, showing that the population was of a very mixed character.
 156 CULTURES OF THE NORTHERN

school, on the other hand, consider that they originated
in South Russia, where a number of such single-graves
with the bodies buried in heaps of ochre have been found
associated with the battle-axe type of weapon. The
question is: was the movement from this South Russian
area northwards an early one, or is this South Russian
culture due to a late incursion from the north ? Again,
in Central Germany when the forests disappeared many
hybrid forms arose, one of the most important of these
being as we have seen the Corded Ware folk, who,
before firing, decorated their pottery by impressing it
with a twisted cord. These people, whose cradle was in
Thuringia, certainly had close connections with the
Battle-Axe folk and were themselves a warlike, domin-
ating race. Are we to consider that their origin was
due to hybridisation from the north, or, if we accept
the South Russian area as the cradle of the Battle-Axe
folk, are these Corded Ware people derived direct from
the same cradle ? Again we have divergent views between
the two schools of archaeologists. Possibly both are
partly true. It may be that the Battle-Axe people
originated in South Russia and thence migrated north-
west round the forests to settle on the shores of the
Baltic; that they absorbed the Neolithic culture of the
people there, and finally dominated them; that when
the forests disappeared they spread southwards forming
hybrids like the Rossen folk of the Merseburg district
and the Corded Ware people. Their typical tool, the
battle axe, has been found spread over a great part of
northern Europe and indicates the wide extension of
this warlike race. Perhaps we may for once reverse the
usual process and use later history to explain earlier.
In the ninth century of our own era the Swedes were
a dominating people; they spread widely southwards
 AND WESTERN AREAS

157

and eastwards; organised the incoherent tribes of what
is now Russia, and even took tribute from Byzantium.
Anyone who has seen the great earthworks thrown up
by these old Swedish warriors at such a place as
Bielosersk in North Russia must admit the strength
and virility of these Scandinavian conquerors. But
Scandinavia, although it bred, then as always, a virile
race, was not big enough and its climate not suitable
for such a rapid increase of population as is neces-
sary to control wide lands obtained by conquest. The
result was that this early domination fell to pieces.
Probably the same thing happened at the end of Early
Neolithic times. Whether the Battle-Axe folk were
developed around the shores of the Baltic in situ, or
whether the stock was introduced from South Russia,
their evolution did to a certain extent take place in this
Northern Area during a considerable period of time;
but when, at the end of Neolithic times, the climate
permitted, and they spread and dominated far and wide,
the increase of population was not sufficient to meet
the requirements, with the result that their influence
gradually waned \

1 V. G. Childe does not stop at South Russia for a cradle, but sees
the origin of the battle axe itself in certain weapons in Mesopotamia.
Other archaeologists, however, are inclined to see a reverse movement.
The question is a difficult one, and it must be added that between
Mesopotamia and South Russia lies some very difficult and not
easily traversed country. The pottery of the Northern Area is distinctive,
the usual types being the large amphora and the collared flask which
often has a ring where the collar and the body meet Other types can
be seen in the chapter on Typology. The collared flasks with rings are
interesting, as a similar example, but having the ring of gold, has been
found in South Russia.
 158 CULTURES OF THE NORTHERN

THE WESTERN AREACa)

The Western Area is in many ways distinct in its
development from the Northern, due to the fact that a
large part of what is now the north of Holland was in
Neolithic times below the level of the sea, and that
contact, although always possible, was not so easy as it
would be to-day. The typical tool, the polished stone
axe, develops differently, and the squaring of the edges
and the flattening of the top and under surface are not
seen to anything like the same extent: see chapter iv.
Pottery in the Western Area never reached anything
like the development that took place in the north, and
although decoration was practised it was on the whole
crude in comparison with that of the other areas. The
only exception to this is in localities under the influence
of the Mediterranean culture, but as here copper was
already being used the culture is no longer really
Neolithic. Even the wonderful developments at Carnac
with their tumulus burials, alignments, beaker-pots,
etc., so long classed as Late Neolithic, date from a time
at the very extreme end of the true Neolithic period;
in fact the finding of a certain amount of metal associated
with the monuments has forced prehistorians to con-
sider Carnac as definitely of Copper Age. Possibly the
richness of Brittany was due to sea commerce in tin and
callais (a rock rather like turquoise), and other minerals
that were required by the more advanced Mediterranean
folk who had already developed a sea trade.

In fact the cultural development over France and
the Western Area generally in Neolithic times was
rather dull and monotonous. The native decorated
pottery is not very interesting and the series of polished
stone celts becomes dreary. Little arrow heads, scrapers,
 AND WESTERN AREAS   159

knives, etc., of the usual types occur and plough-shares
made of quartzite from the Forest of Montmorency
have already been mentioned. The occurrence of hand-
some easily worked honey-coloured flint at Grand
Pressigny (Indre et Loire) gave rise to a brisk commerce
in this commodity, but it did not reach its climax till
Copper Age times. The Omalian fonds de cabanes of
Belgium have already been described. Some burials in
a sort of stone kist at Chamblandes near Lausanne, of
Middle to Late Neolithic date, are not without a certain
interest. The Camp de Chassey, situated on the borders
of the Departments of Sa6ne et Loire and Cote d’Or,
would seem to have been a well-fortified village. Some
800 yards long, with a breadth varying from 120 to
220 yards it occupied a strong position on the top of a
narrow rocky plateau dominating the right bank of the
River Dheune. Each end of the emplacement was pro-
tected by a raised embankment which in places is even
now 15 yards high on the outside. The remains of habi-
tations and hearths have been discovered as well as rich
finds of pottery, implements, etc. The flint finds include
scrapers, awls, fabricators, sickles and arrow heads in
such quantities as to suggest their manufacture for trade.
There are implements in polished stone, massive pierced
stone rings, stone polishers and hones: bone points,
stag antler hafts for tools, also small cups beautifully
made from the base of the antler. Finally there is
an immense variety of pottery; there are vases with
saucer-like stands, small twin cups, spoons, and an
infinity ofbowls and vessels (Plate 16, nos. 4—7,11,12).
The decorations are varied, some recalling those on
Laibach pottery. The date of the village would seem
to be Late Neolithic, though it continued to be used
sporadically till the Iron Age (4).
 i6o

CULTURES OF THE NORTHERN

SWISS LAKE DWELLINGS(s)

The Swiss Lake-Dwelling and the Pile-Village culture
as a whole, found on both sides of the Alps stretching
from eastern France right away through Austria and
on into Jugo-Slavia, is of very special interest. A de-
scription of the pile dwellings has already been given
in the chapter on Neolithic civilisation, and it only
remains here to discuss the industries found and the
origin and connection of the culture itself. The brilliant
work of Vouga in recent years has determined a
definite stratigraphy in the peat and mud under some
of these Lake-Dwelling villages. Four distinct cultures
have been determined. In the first of these occur
beautifully made pottery, recalling the Danubian, and
well-made stone axes, often from very choice rocks,
such as serpentine, that must have been imported from
some distance; these little polished stone axes are often
mounted in the hollowed-out ends of portions of antler.
Quite clearly there is a distinct connection with the
later phases of Danubian I culture, although it would
seem probable that the connection is not so much racial
as an influence acting possibly on older Mesolithic folk
who certainly existed previously in these regions, as has
been proved by the finding of an Azilian station south
of Basle at a site called Birseck, and elsewhere. In the
second period, according to the stratigraphy of the
Swiss Lake Dwellings, there was a very distinct falling
off and the Danubian influence ceased. Possibly a more
distinct influence from the Western Area can be traced.
Between the first and second periods, owing to climatic
changes, great floods occurred and the lakes rose. No
cultural connection, therefore, is traceable between
them. In the second period the implements were
 AND WESTERN AREAS

161

generally made from local rocks, and they and the
pottery are of very inferior manufacture. In the third
level there is distinct improvement and foreign rocks
were again imported for the making of small polished
tools. In the fourth or latest stage we note the intro-
duction of copper, and the extensive commerce that
grew up in parts of Europe at this time brought to the
Swiss lake dwellers the especially valued dark honey-
coloured flint from Grand Pressigny (West France).

The extension of the Pile-Dwelling culture along the
foot-hills of the Alps on both sides of the central chain
is of great interest, and the question arises: was the
movement from the west eastwards; was the connection
of Loubliana (Laibach) with Switzerland; or are we to
look further east for the relationships and an east to west
movement ? On the whole, in Switzerland at any rate,
there seems little need to postulate the introduction of
a new racial element, and it does not seem inconceivable
that much of the culture of the Pile Dwellings further
east may be of autochthonous growth, undergoing
influences to a greater or lesser extent from the Danubian
industries of the loess lands. Laibach, itself contem-
porary with and in a way similar to, though different
from the Pile-Dwelling cultures of the Mondsee in
Austria, is late in time and must be considered in con-
nection with the movement at the end of Neolithic
times that brought together the various cultures, forming
hybrids which themselves played a considerable part
in the development of the peoples around.

No burials belonging to the Pile-Dwelling culture
have as yet been discovered.

2

IX
 16a NORTHERN AND WESTERN AREAS

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   V. Correia. “El NeoKtico de Pavia.” Mem. comm. de Invest.

pal. y prekist. num. 27 (1921).

(2)   N. Aberg. *Das Nordische Kultur Gebiet in Mitteleuropa

wakrendder jungeren Steinzeit.   Uppsala, 1918.

S. Muller. “L’Age de la Pierre en Schlesvig.” Mim. de la Soc.
Antiq. du Nord, Copenhagen, 1913-14.

(3)   A passage country lying between the Northern and Western
Cultural Areas was the Netherlands. For a description of the Stone
Ageothere see:

N. Aberg. Die Steinzeit in den Niederlanden. Uppsala, 1916.
J. Dechelette. * Manuel d}Arckiologie prihistorique.... Vol. 1.
Paris, 1908. The chapters on the Neolithic period still remain
very important for the student.

See also bibliography (2) at end of chapter v.

(4)   Those wishing detailed studies on the Western Area cultures
should consult:—

P. Bosch Gimpera. “Les civilisations de la Peninsule Iberique
pendant le Neolithique et r£neolithique,” V Anthropologies
tomexxxv, 192 5,nos. 5-6: “Studes surleNeolithique etl’fineo-
lithique de France,” Revue Antkropologique, 1926, nos. 7-9.

It should be noted that in the latter work the Campignian culture
is classed as Early Neolithic. It should be recalled, however, that
the Neolithic Civilisation in the west was due rather to the intro-
duction of new ideas than of actual hordes of Neolithic folk.
These ideas enabled the old Mesolithic stocks to become “Neo-
lithicised ” and permitted an increase in population which rapidly
followed naturally according to the Malthusian Law.

(3) See bibliography (2) at end of chapter v.

See also bibliography (1) at end of chapter 11.

P. Vouga. “Essai de classification du Neolithique lacustre d’apr^s
la stratification.” Three articles in the Anzeiger fur Schweizerische
Altertumshunde, Band xxii, Heft 4, 1920; and in the same
journal for 1921 and 1922.
 CHAPTER VII

A BRIEF SKETCH OF ENGLAND IN
MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC, AND
EARLIEST METAL AGE TIMES

It has never been the purpose of this book to go into
any kind of detail, and even in this chapter dealing
with a restricted special area little more than a frame-
work for more detailed study will be attempted. The
problems of these post-Palaeolithic prehistoric cultures
are very intricate, and there is seldom a well attested
stratigraphy to assist the investigator.

TYPOLOGY

rising perhaps obliquely but not recurved. In the second
type there is no distinct division between the body and the
rim, and the rim is strongly curved outwards at the lip
(Plate 19, nos. 1 and 5). The main body of the pot is
globular rather than oval. The material used for making
the pots was extremely carefully chosen and the pots
are generally thinner than those of the first variety.
They were often fired in presence of air and so had a
red colour. Type 3, which is especially common in
the north of England and Scotland, is considered by
Abercromby to be only a debased variety of type x;
the body is oval rather than globular, but the brim is
much lower and is only a fraction of the length of the
body (Plate 19, no. 3). Foreign examples show many
varieties (Plate 19, no. 4). In some cases the vessel
rests on little legs (Plate 19, no. 6). Mugs with handles
are also found, and these latter were introduced later
into England, where a few examples occur (Plate 19,
no. 7) *.

1 Note that the decoration motifs are not confined to the particular
type of beaker on which they are shown in the plate.
 Plate iS. Examples showing types of “mixed culture** pottery that developed in Late Neolithic times

in Central Europe.

TYPOLOGY   129
 Plate i9- Examples showing types of the Beaker pottery of the Copper Age.

TYPOLOGY
 CHAPTER V

NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF THE EASTERN
AREA AND LATE NEOLITHIC TIMES
IN CENTRAL EUROPE

Central Asia with its present desert wastes,
where formerly, under different climatic conditions,
broad pasture lands doubtless extended, was probably
the cradle of our Neolithic civilisation and of many
of our domestic animals. So we should naturally expect
to find that a Neolithic culture would early be
flourishing in eastern Europe and are not therefore
surprised to find in the earliest Neolithic period around
the basin of the Danube peoples practising agriculture
and the domestication of animals, apparently unwarlike
and leading a simple peasant existence«. They were
expert in pottery making, being very careful in the
choosing of the raw material, with the result that their
pots are a joy to behold and handle. The pots are as a
rule of a greyish colour, being made from beautifully
smoothed paste and often finely decorated. The usual
shape is that of a cup or basin with rounded bottom,
and a certain amount of neck is sometimes added. There
is nothing in the way of a true handle, though two or
more lugs are often attached around the pot about two
thirds up from the base. The lugs themselves are little
conical projections sometimes pierced with a small
vertical hole, though larger varieties, pointed and rather
like the horn at the ends of a long-bow, are not un-
known (»). The holes are usually quite small in diameter,
and it seems probable that these pots with their rounded
 CULTURES OF THE

132

bottoms were carried in small hammock-like nets, the
ends of which were passed through the holes. The
decoration in early times was exclusively by engraving
and consisted of a series of spiral-like curved lines or
zigzags. A favourite motif consists of large zigzag lines,
small depressions occurring where the lines meet; the
general appearance is a little like early manuscript music
and has been named, therefore, rather fancifully, Noten-
schrift decoration. Two stone agricultural weapons are
common: one known as the shoe-last chisel or hoe and
the other the hammer axe1. Small chipped flint and
obsidian flakes and knife blades occur, both the coloured
and the black variety of the latter material being very
common in Hungary, although examples have also been
found in Lower Austria and elsewhere. Some of these
little chipped flint tools almost recall the so-called
Tardenoisean types, although there is no reason to
suspect any connection between the cultures. The
people lived in villages, the houses being usually small
and oval in shape, and generally slightly excavated in
the manner of the Belgianfonds de cabanes of the Hesbaye
which they closely resemble and which have been already
described. The food pit is generally found inside or
close to a hut, sometimes one pit may have served
several houses. These villages grew up in suitable
localities; a good supply of fresh water being, of course,
a sine qua non.

Little is known about the people themselves as
hardly any of their graves have been preserved. They
would seem however to have been a tall long-headed
folk. Apparently the dead were buried in flat graves
without mound or tumulus, the body being flexed.
Although inhumation was the almost universal rule
1 For description of these see the chapter on Typology.
 EASTERN AREA   133

both in Periods Danubian I and Danubian II, isolated
cases of cremation have been observed.

Although the cultures of this Eastern Area are
called Danubian, it must be noted that their distribution
was far wider than the valley of the Danube. In different
districts local names have been given and the cultures
to which they refer are of course not all precisely similar.
Thus in the Danube regions the earliest culture is named,
from the typical decoration on the pottery, Spiral-
Meander; elsewhere there is the Hinkelstein culture
of Wiirttemberg, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, and as far
west as Alsace, and the South German Rossen culture
which as a whole is perhaps rather later in date judging
from the fact that certain influences from the true Rossen
people living to the north can be traced in the pottery.
But differences in time as well as area exist and a
sequence of at least three periods has been determined.
These are due partly to an evolution in situ, partly to
the action of outside influences. The latter were par-
ticularly strong in the last (Danubian III) period when
the influence of the Northern Area became especially
marked owing to the partial disappearance of the great
primaeval forests of Central Germany.

It is convenient to treat Moravia as the typical area as
many examples of the splendid pottery already described
have been found there. At first the decoration consists
usually of curves and meanders and is firm and clear (Plate
15,nos. 1—4). Later the pots still remained simple in form,
but the plain spiral-meander and Notenschrift decoration
in single engraved lines was replaced by a technique of
fine punctuated lines known as Stichband. The whole
appearance of the decoration became more angular, the
meanders becoming straight and the wide zigzags long
and narrow, their angles acute instead of obtuse. New
 134   CULTURES OF THE

decoration motifs also appear. This development of
Danubian I, like the true Spiral-Meander culture,
spread up the Danube and its tributaries as well as
northwards through Moravian). The earliest industries
of the Swiss lake dwellings owe practically everything
to the Danubian culture. The whole of Central Germany
was still covered by forests and therefore as yet un-
inhabited, but, following the forest-free loess lands, this
eastern European peasant folk actually seem to have
penetrated as far west as Belgium where a Neolithic
industry called Omalian certainly contains examples of
its pottery with the punctuation decoration motifs
(Plate 15, nos. 10, 11, 12—the first is an eastern
European sherd, the two latter from Belgium). South-
wards the Danubian culture came in contact with the
far more developed and brilliant cultures of the Medi-
terranean basin, where metal was not unknown. Con-
siderable intercourse between the two regions can be
traced by a study of the respective industries.

The Danubian II culture which followed is largely
an evolution of the older culture; but in Hungary (for
example at the well-known site at Lengyelw) and in
Bavaria it is especially characterised by the occurrence
of large numbers of footed vessels (Plate 15, no. 14)
and pots ornamented with little round knobs (Plate 15,
no. 15). Numbers of socketed ladles also occur.
Human figurines had already been made by the first
Danubian folk, but in second Danubian times they
show great skill in manufacture—a seated figure
carrying a baby, from the second level at Vin£a (s), a
site near Belgrade, is really delightful1.

1 The earliest level at Vinca can be correlated with Danubian I
of Moravia. V. G. Childe believes that the Danubians arrived in
Europe by the Danube, Vinca I being, therefore, especially early.
 EASTERN AREA

135

By the next period (Danubian III) the change of
climate at the end of Neolithic times had already begun
to operate and the forests of the central lands were
gradually disappearing. Influences from the north
begin to appear and at the same time the Pile-Dwelling
culture of the highland region to the south began to
spread beyond its borders. The result was that the
peasant population of the loess plains became affected
by these northern and southern influences, the intensity
of each varying naturally with the particular locality.
In such an area as Lower Austria the Pile-Dwelling
influence is the stronger, and we find handled cups of
coarse though well-burnt pottery, typical of the Pile-
Dwelling industries; but little influence from the north
is apparent, except the occasional occurrence of a few
potsherds engraved with deep lines forming close
zigzags, which strongly recall northern types.

A little later when the central districts of Germany
were forest-free and definitely inhabited, hybrids de-
veloped between the cultures of the various areas and
these in their turn influenced and sometimes dominated
the old peasant stock which we have been describing
and who, engaged as they were in agriculture, never
seem to have developed the warlike arts.

But this brings us to the whole question of the Late
Neolithic cultures in Central Europe formed by the
intermixture of the old stocks. The matter is extra-
ordinarily complicated and only a brief sketch is here pos-
sible. In Thuringia there developed a culture character-
ised by its methods of pottery decoration. Before being
burnt the paste was impressed with a twisted cord or
string and its makers are therefore known as the Corded
Ware folk. These people were hardy and warlike,
owing as they did a great deal to the northern stock
 CULTURES OF THE

X36

from which they largely sprang. They possessed the
battle axe, and their northern relationship is further
seen by the presence of the round amphora. They were
a long-headed people who interred their dead, in either
a squatting or an extended position, in small stone kists
or in shallow pit graves covered with a low mound. A
rich funeral furniture including pottery, battle axes,
hammer axes, pierced teeth, and the like, is often found.
Cremation was very rarely practised. A careful study
of the Corded Ware culture has enabled investigators
to determine an older and a later series showing con-
siderable development in the interval. These were some
of the folk who lived side by side with and dominated
the old peasant Danubians; it is the Corded Ware
people who inhabited the hills, living in fortified
localities, while the Danubians lived in unprotected
villages in the valleys below.

The so-called Rossen culture (2), whose cradle seems
to have been near Merseburg, is another hybrid which
owes much to the Northern Area folk. As before, the
round amphora occurs as well as round and flat-bottomed
bowls which are profusely and beautifully decorated
with small complicated geometric patterns. On the
other hand, especially in South Germany, the hammer
axe and shoe-last shaped chisel or hoe (Plate 11, no. 2)
are found together with ceramic forms which demon-
strate that the Danubian culture of the Eastern Area
also entered largely into the admixture. The cemeteries
near Merseburg show inhumation in small kists under
barrows, the body being flexed, but cremation was
practised at a rather later date. The Rossen folk spread
to the regions of the Elbe, Saale and central and south-
western Germany, where, like their Corded Ware
relations, they formed a warrior race. The houses, as
 EASTERN AREA

137

seen at the village site of Grossgartach in Wiirttemberg,
were usually square or rectangular, and were often on
two levels. Below was the kitchen and hearth, with a
refuse pit near the exit, above were the sleeping quarters.
As usual in Neolithic times the walls were constructed
of wooden joists interfilled with wicker work daubed
over with clay.

Towards the south the influence of the Pile-Dwelling
folk was more strongly felt, and there arose a series of
cultures that were all closely interrelated. They have
been classed together as the Aichbtihl mixed culture,
from the finds at Aichbuhl in Wiirttemberg00. The
admixture was doubtless of hybrids like the Corded
Ware folk, etc.; not of the pure races of the several
areas. The decoration motifs on the pottery show
strong influence both from the north and from the pile-
dwellings; thus we note the fine deep lozenge and
zigzags recalling Scandinavia, and the small round pits
around the rims typical of the Lake-Dwellings pottery.
But though a general name has been adopted to denote
these Late Neolithic mixed cultures of the south, they
are by no means all alike and the pottery of Aichbuhl
is by no means exactly similar to its contemporary of
the Mondsee nor to that found at Loubliana (Laibach)
(Plate 20).

Lastly the Beaker folk, cradled in Spain, arrived to
add their quota to the welter of peoples that had by
now grown up in Central Europe. Their typical vessel
was the beaker described in chapter iv, and archers’
wrist guards made of stone are common. They already
knew of the use of copper for the purposes of tool-
making. Their dead were generally interred though
two instances of cremation have been found in Moravia.
How they reached Central Europe and spread as far
 CULTURES OF THE

138

east as Silesia and Hungary is not quite clear. The
natural route would be via France and the Belfort gap,
but it is just here that finds are rarest. However, Beaker
folkwere at this timeinthenorthofItaly,anditis possible
that the warm dry climate had by now opened the Bren-
ner Pass, which a little later, in Bronze Age times,
became such an important commercial route.

In Late Neolithic times a new folk appear in eastern
Europe, who made a well-burnt, beautifully painted
pottery. Stratigraphically two periods have been deter-
mined, but as yet little is known about them; did they
originate in South Russia or further eastwards? An
acquaintance with the use of copper, especially in the
later period, is certain.

It appears that these people were already inhabiting
fortified villages in Transylvania in Late Danubian II
times for, at a site called Erosd numbers of the footed
vessels typical of the Danubian II culture have been
found together with their painted pottery. Were
these people in Transylvania and the lands to the east-
ward at a still earlier date? Was it they who forced
the Battle-Axe folk to go northwards towards the
Baltic when they left South Russia to trek westwards ?
Although the painted pottery culture did not spread to
any very great extent, it has been recognised in a number
of localities from the south of Russia to Thessaly. The
more important sites are, Tripolje, 40 miles south of
Kief; Petreny, in Bessarabia; Erosd, in Transylvania,
the industry at which last place can be correlated with
that found in the lower levels at the next site Cucuteni,
in Moldavia, where two distinct levels are found.
Several sites are known in Galicia. In the Buko-
wina Schipenitz(6>, one of the type stations of this
painted ware culture has been excavated. The typical
 Plate 20. Laibach pottery: Forms and designs drawn from rough sketches made in the
Museum at Loubliana (Laibach).

\©

EASTERN AREA
 CULTURES OF THE

I4O

Schipenitz pottery was carefully burnt throughout, even
in the case of thick specimens. A reddish coloured,
well-washed and carefully selected clay has been used.
The colours employed include deep red, yellow, and
brown and creamy white: they are sometimes applied
direct to the polished surface, sometimes a slip is em-
ployed.

The occurrence of this painted ware in Thessalyo) is
important and in that region four cultural periods have
been recognised. The pottery of Period I was beautifully
made and decorated with well painted geometric patterns,
red and white as well as brown paint having been em-
ployed. There was also some incisedware with a punctua-
tion techniqueand a fine, thin, grey, undecorated ware not
unlike some Neolithic pottery found in the Peloponnese.
It is not yet known whence this culture arrived in
Thessaly or what its relationships are, the occurrence
of some shoe-last shaped tools with the pottery indicates
an influence from the Danubian culture further north,
though the pottery itself is, of course, quite different.
In Period II the country seems to have been overrun
by the Schipenitz and Cucuteni painted-pottery folk.
At Dimini occur large numbers of hand-made, shallow
bowls narrowing at the base; these are painted inside
and out in monochrome, geometric patterns being
employed. There is also an incised ware, the decoration
being done with deep firm lines. The third period in
Thessaly shows influences from the Bronze Age cul-
tures developing in the south. There also occurs a
painted crusted ware, the paint on which was not burnt
in when the pot was fired but can be removed by friction
or washing. This is an important find as it makes it
possible to correlate the industry of this period in
Thessaly with that of Moravia where a similar painted
 Plate zi, Examples of the industry found at Butmir (Bosnia).

RACES(s)

Nothing has been said so far as to the Neolithic race
or races. Various criteria have been adopted by the
physical anthropologists to differentiate the races of
mankind. Thus hair, pigmentation, skull-form, stature,
etc., are all employed, and when taken together demon-
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION   99

strate with fair certainty the relationships of any par-
ticular people. But taken singly these criteria may be
deceptive, just in the same way as typology without the
checks of stratigraphy, patina, etc., often leads the
student of Palaeolithic times into hopeless error. Only
skeletons have survived to help us in determining pre-
historic races and these remains—even in the Neolithic
and earliest Metal Age Periods—are not very common
and often not too well preserved. It follows that it is
not always possible to differentiate races with any clear-
ness, and the matter is further complicated in that a
school exists which suggests that even such a thing as
skull form is partly a resultant of environment, and that
a change in latitude or altitude will in time definitely
affect the structure of the body (6).

However, the old division of the early inhabitants of
Europe into Mediterraneans, Alpines and Nordics, still
remains very useful. The Mediterranean race was long-
headed, oval-faced and of slender build. This type is
found around the Middle Sea and as far north as south-
ern Britain. The same description applies to the Neo-
lithic folk at Anau, which is very important for it is
more than possible that the Neolithic civilisation had its
cradle in Central Asia. Again, it has been shown that
in all probability the old long-headed Capsian folk
developed into the Tardenoiseans and, learning some-
thing of the new civilisation, became “neolithicised”
and formed no small part of the Neolithic stock of the
western Mediterranean. Possibly it is better to refer
all to a larger race group (Neoanthropic Man) who first
arrived in Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times and there
underwent considerable modifications. If this be so the
men of Anau and of the western Mediterranean would
be cousins, as it were, and physically not very dissimilar.
 too   NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

The Alpines were as a whole a very round-headed,
broad-faced, thick-set folk, rather taller than the Medi-
terraneans. They occupied the mountains forming the
backbone of Europe and Asia. It used to be thought
that it was the round-heads who introduced the Neo-
lithic civilisation into Europe and this theory was
strengthened by the finding of a few round-headed
skulls associated with the long-headed variety in Meso-
lithic burials (comp. Ofnet, Mughem, etc.). As it was
then an acknowledged fact that no round-heads appeared
in Europe before Neolithic times, this seemed con-
clusive, and it was believed that these Mesolithic round-
heads were the forerunners of an invading Neolithic
people. The finding of round-headed skulls at Solutr6
of Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian) age has rather
modified this conclusion. Again, the earliest Swiss lake
culture owes everything to the long-headed Danubians
of the Eastern Area, who pushed up the Danube and
spread northwards by the Moravian gap into Silesia, and
southwards by the Rhine to the Lake of Constance and
elsewhere, founding there a culture which only ceased
with the rising and overflowing of the lakes, due to
climatic changes. The Pile-Dwelling culture later owes
more to the Western Area. The Alpines thus were not
the first Neolithic folk in the field, at any rate not in
western Europe, although further east they no doubt
played a greater rdle in very early times.

The cradle of the last or Nordic race is roughly
placed in the south of Siberia. This folk seems to have
arrived in Europe at a rather later date than the other
two unless we are to consider as a proto-Nordic invasion
the Upper Palaeolithic Solutreans, who, coming from
eastwards, dominated parts of western Europe before
vanishing at the rise of the Magdalenians. Burials
afford little evidence as they are few and unsatisfactory.
 IOI

NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

Nordic man was tall and long-headed; some modern
Swedes to-day conform closely to the type.

It is interesting to note that trephination of the living
human skull was sometimes practised in prehistoric
times (7). This fact was noted by Prunieres as long ago
as 1865. Sometimes a large hole was simply bored;
sometimes the same result was obtained by drilling a
series of small holes or by scraping out a small circular
furrow and then removing the enclosed portion of bone.
How this delicate operation could have been performed
with only sharp flint tools, and the actuating motive,
remain a mystery.

Trephining after the death of the individual is also
known, but this was probably merely for convenience
in suspending the head, possibly of a dead friend, more
probably of some redoubtable foe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   H. Gams and R. Nord hagen. * Postglaziale Clintaanderungen

und erdkrusten Bewegungen in Mitteleurofa, Munich, 1923.

C. E. P. Brooks. “The evolution of climate in North-west Europe.”
Quart. Journ. Roy. Meteor. Soc. vol. xlvii, 1921, p. 173.

----- The Evolution of Climate, London, 1922.

(2)   T. J. Arne* Palaeontologia Sink a, series P, voL 1, fasc. 2. Peking,

1925.

(3)   See bibliography (4) at end of chapter 11.

(4)   M. de Ptjydt. A good account will be found in tome xxix, 1910,

of the Mim. Soc. d’Anth. de Bruxelles. This author has published
much on this subject

(5)   A. C. Haddon. The Races of Man. 1924.

(6)   Sir W. Ridgeway. See Brit. Ass. (Anth. Sect.), Dublin, 1908.

(7)   T. W. Parry* “The Prehistoric Trephined Skulls of Great Britain,

etc.” Proc. Roy. Soc. of Medicine, vol. xiv, no. 10, Aug. 1921.

----- “Trephination of the living Human Skull in prehistoric

times.” Brit. Med. Journ. March 1923.

----- “The collected evidence of Trephination of the Human

Skull in Great Britain during prehistoric times.” Proc. Third
Internat. Congress of the Hist, of Medicine, London, July 1922.
 CHAPTER IV1

TYPOLOGY

In dealing with Neolithic industries methods similar
to those used in describing our Palaeolithic fore-
runners can be employed. The various tools can be
classed into families, each family containing a number
of different types clearly related to one another.
Naturally overlap sometimes occurs, and there are cases
when it is impossible to say whether a given specimen
is the final development of one family or of another.
Neolithic man was obviously concerned in making a
tool that would do the particular job required, and had
little thought or care about conforming exactly to any
accurate pattern. From the student’s point of view,
however, the evolution of these families is very useful,
and, to a greater or less extent, they doubtless corre-
spond with the various works which had to be performed
by prehistoric man.

CELTS

From a typological point of view the most important
family in Neolithic times is undoubtedly the celt. This
tool is sometimes made of flint, sometimes of any fine-
grained hard rock, whether igneous or sedimentary. As
it would seem that a tough edge was required, the latter
was mostly used, the former only being requisitioned in
areas, like East Anglia, where flint is very common and
other hard rocks are almost absent. The tool was made

1 This chapter is largely for reference purposes and describes the
various types of tools and pottery; it should be read in conjunction with
the succeeding chapters.
 TYPOLOGY

103

either by chipping, or by grinding and polishing, or by
a combination of the two techniques. The basal type
is the same for both the Northern and Western Areas;
celts are not found in the Eastern Area; but from the
basal type sprang developments, which are not the same
in the north as in the west. The basal type can be seen
on reference to Plate 8, nos. 2 and 5. No. 2, from
Lakenheath, Suffolk, is made of hint, a chipping
technique being alone employed. There is a sharp
convex cutting edge, the other or butt end being more
or less pointed. In the case of the particular specimen
in question a considerable amount of natural crust has
been left at the top end, possibly useful as a handhold.
The sides are straight and converge towards the butt.
No. 5, from Reach Fen, Cambridgeshire, is a ground
specimen made of igneous rock. The working edge,
as before, is convex, and a section cut through the
tool towards the butt end would be circular; which fact
is of some importance. Whether these tools were hafted
as axes or adzes, or whether they were used as hand
tools, it is not easy to say, possibly in both ways. It is
not unlikely that in some cases the tool was used as we
should use a cold chisel, that is, it was held in position
by the hand and the butt end was hammered with a
wooden mallet. This would explain the peculiar frac-
tures that are sometimes to be noted at the top end of
the tool.

WESTERN AREA

The evolution of the celt in the Western Area is
simple to follow. The tool becomes flatter, the section
through the butt end from being more or less circular
becomes very oval, and in the final development there
is little to distinguish the object from a chisel. Plate 8,
 TYPOLOGY

IO4

no. x, from Burwell Fen, Cambridgeshire, is a good
example of a partially polished, partially chipped speci-
men, with straight, sharp, slightly converging sides
running up from the convex working edge to a narrow
sharp butt end. No. 4 from Coton, Cambridgeshire, is
similar in form though polished throughout. No. 6, as
was the case in no. 1, is partly polished, partly chipped,
but in this instance the polish is confined solely to the
working edge. It comes from Burnt Fen, Cambridge-
shire, and is more pointed at the top end than 1 or 4
though the section is very oval. Possibly this is a
slightly later characteristic. Varieties, such as Plate 8,
no. 3, from Burwell Fen, Cambridgeshire, showing a
very definite waist to the tool, are to be considered as
chisels, but they cannot logically be separated from a
final development of the celt.

NORTHERN AREA

The developments of the celt around the Baltic are
not quite the same. If a section through the middle of
the basal type be taken, either in the Northern or the
Western Area, it will be found to be circular rather
than oval; in the first northern development the celt
has squared sides and the section becomes an oval, the
two ends of which are truncated. This type, which in
Scandinavia is found in the dolmens, is figured on
Plate 9, no. 4; this specimen, from Sweden, is partly
chipped, though mostly polished. As before, the two
slightly convergent sides run up from a convex working
edge to the butt end, which is not very pointed and is
sharp. In the next development the section through
the middle of the tool becomes rectangular: many large
and beautiful examples of this variety, made solely by
chipping, have been found in Danish passage graves.
 TYPOLOGY

105

Plate 8. Neolithic tools.
 TYPOLOGY

106

Plate 9, no. I, from Denmark, is an example made
mostly by a chipping technique, though polishing,
especially on the side shown in the figure, is not absent.
In the final development of the celt the section remains
rectangular, but the sides become much more conver-
gent and the butt end more pointed and less sharp.
Plate 9, no. 2, is a typical example made of the grey
flint so common in Scandinavia; the thick squared sides
are boldly blocked out by coarse vertical chipping; a
certain amount of polishing is present on the specimen.
A small toy example, pierced for suspension, possibly
used as an ornament or an amulet, is figured on Plate
12, no. 4; it was found in Aberdeenshire. Many
halted specimens of celts have been found in the Swiss
lake dwellings. The haft consists of a piece of antler,
the celt being inserted in the hollowed end and held in
place by some mastic. Plate 13, no. 7, is a good example,
and that such a hafted tool would form a useful hand
implement is very evident. No. 6 of the same Plate
shows a small celt from the Swiss lakes without its
antler haft.

CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.

It has already been stated that in some cases the final
developments of the celt graded into what one would
naturally describe as a chisel, but other types exist, as
reference to Plate 10, nos. 7 and 8, will at once show.
No. 7, from Burwell, Cambridgeshire, is of flint made
partly by flaking, partly by polishing. The well-made,
working edge is pointed and flattened so as to resemble
a screw-driver and is polished on both sides, but the
other end, fairly sharp and not very regular, has been
mostly chipped; possibly this other end was hafted in
a hollow stick. No. 8, from Icklingham, Suffolk, is
 TYPOLOGY

107

Plate 9. Neolithic tools.
 TYPOLOGY

108

made mostly by chipping; the working edge is regular,
differing from the butt end which, though also fairly
sharp, is very irregular: it has been damaged in recent
times, the patina showing that a modern flake has been
removed. Broad chipped chisels, flat on the under-
surface and convex on the upper are common at Cissbury.
Plate 8, no. 3, a specimen already mentioned in con-
nection with the celts, is very thin compared with its
length; the convex working edge shows polishing,
though most of the rest of the specimen, including the
sharp butt end, is wholly formed by chipping. Plate 11,
no. 2, figures a peculiar type of tool from Lakenheath
Warren, Suffolk, the exact use of which is unknown.
From some points of view it should be classed in the
family of the arrow heads, being connected with the
transverse-edge variety (see p. 114), the convex sharp
edge being the working edge and the lower pointed
end being hafted in a stick or bone. Other students
have considered, however, that the tool was used as a
small convex-edge chisel. Such a shape would be very
useful in leather work.

Plate 9, no. 3, illustrates a gouge from Denmark
with a section below showing the gouge-like hollow.
It is a tool rarely found in Great Britain or the Western
Area, but is common in Scandinavia. It is exactly
similar to the celt, except that the convex working edge
is hollowed out, as in the case of a large modern gouge.

PICKS AND FABRICATORS

A typical pick from Eriswell, Suffolk, is shown on
Plate 1 o, no. 9, and a typical fabricator, from Kentford,
Suffolk, on the same plate, no. 11. Implements of the
pick type were almost certainly used as cold chisels.
They are rough, irregular tools usually made almost
 TYPOLOGY

109

Plate 10. Neolithic tools.
 no

TYPOLOGY

solely by chipping; and have a fairly narrow sharp end,
and a blunt butt end. They were quite suitable for use
with a wooden mallet. This tool is very common in Neo-
lithic industries, and with its roughly parallel sides cannot
be mistaken for any Palaeolithic forerunner. Examples
ten inches or more in length have been found.

The fabricator is a much smaller tool, often blunt at
both ends. The student might perhaps regard it as a
stone finger, and it was probably used for the thousand
and one purposes in which a live finger would get
damaged. Doubtless, too, it was used as a small punch.

SCRAPERS

Scrapers of all varieties and shapes abound in Neo-
lithic industries. Examples can be seen on Plate io,
nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and io. The first of these, which is a
Belgian example of Omalian date, shows a typical end-
scraper on a short blade. No. 3, from Icklingham,
Suffolk, is a core-scraper—sometimes called a “tea-
cosy,” being in shape not unlike one of these articles.
Nos. 4 and 5 are made on flakes, no. 4 comes from near
Grimes Graves and no. 5 from Eastbourne. Slight
differences can be noted; for example, no. 4 has a low
keel running up the flake which is completely absent
from no. 5. In the case of these four examples the
working edge was obtained by chipping, percussion
being used. In the case of no. 10, from Icklingham,
Suffolk, however, pressure flaking has been employed;
the flake scars show a scaling as if fragments of flint
like fish scales had been removed; the facets are covered
with fine ripple marks, giving to the whole a rather
glassy or waxy appearance1. This latter appearance, due
to pressure flaking, is in all probability a sign that the
1 This is not seen when the object is patinated.
 TYPOLOGY

III

Plate ii. Neolithic and Earliest Metal Age tools.
 112

TYPOLOGY

tool can be regarded as being of the Early Metal Age.
Similar tools have been found with burials in the
Beaker Age.

SLUGS

Another tool on which this glassy or waxy appearance
is common is the so-called slug—Plate n, no. 3.
This tool is made on a blade, the under surface being
the flake surface; the upper surface is convex, trimmed
all over by pressure flaking. Where this top surface is
very convex and the flint is unpatinated, the appearance,
at first sight, is not unlike those repulsive slugs found
in damp bogs. However, in many cases the top surface
is not so convex, and in some instances, where the
specimens are patinated, the name no longer applies.
The use of these tools is unknown.

SICKLES

Some form of sickle is essential to the agriculturist
and examples of such a tool are not infrequent. They
usually consist of several medium-sized stout flakes
with sharp, often denticulated edges, hafted in some
such fashion as indicated in Plate 12, no. 5. If the
working edge of a sickle is turned to the light, it will
be seen, except in cases that have been subsequently
heavily patinated, that the action of the straw on the
flint has produced a veritable polishing at the extreme
edge, with an appearance comparable to that of sand
polishing in the desert. This is a very good test as to
whether a not particularly denticulated blade has been
utilised as a sickle. Naturally it is quite impossible to
give this appearance in a pen and ink drawing. Plate 12,
nos. 2 and 6, are examples of sickle tools, the former
from Scandinavia, the latter an African specimen from
the Siwa Oasis.
 TYPOLOGY

llZ

Central Asia to-day contains some of the loftiest
mountains in the world and some of the largest deserts.
It is an inland area without any access to the sea, and
what precipitation and rainfall there is drains to no
ocean, but is either engulfed in the sands or evaporated
into the air. In Quaternary times, however, a very
different state of affairs existed. Over a large area now
desert there stretched a huge inland ocean, of which
the Caspian, the Aral, Lake Balkash, and many another
small sheet of water are to-day the shrivelled remains.
This inland ocean had communication also with the
Black Sea, as at that time the water level of what is now
the Caspian Sea stood something like 600 feet higher <3).
The influence of this large sheet of water, fed from
glacier streams due to the melting of the ice sheets of
the end of Quaternary times, was naturally enormous.
Large sheets of water not only act as a governor on
temperature, holding the warmth of a warm period,
thus preventing the temperature getting too hot, and
giving it out again during a cold season, thus preventing
the temperature getting too low; but also the evapora-
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION   79

tion and subsequent precipitation from such a great
expanse of sea produced the moisture necessary to make
large areas of Central Asia, which are now desert, fertile
and fruitful lands. We therefore have to consider the
likelihood that towards the end of Quaternary times
when western Europe was not the most suitable place
on earth for human habitation, Central Asia, in spite
of the possession of high glacier-covered ranges and
mountains, was far more favourably situated. But the
dryness that set in in post-Glacial times, and more
especially it would seem during Mesolithic times, while
it considerably bettered the situation in western Europe,
brought untold ruin to mankind in Central Asia.
Doubtless, too, this was augmented by earth movements,
by the opening of the Bosphorus, and by the draining
and disappearance of the great central Asian sea. Man
was faced with either extinction or migration and he
apparently chose the latter alternative; hence from this
time we find in Europe a continual pressure from the
east. Whether we are to look to Central Asia for the
cradle of agriculture and domestic animals, pottery, and
all the other things that go to make up our modern
civilisation we may never know. The desert holds its
secrets. It may be that we ought to look still further
eastwards remembering that the arid stretches of the
great Gobi Desert must at one time have yielded fertile
land for mankind’s herds and crops. The recent dis-
covery of painted pottery of Neolithic or Early Metal
Age in northern Chinaco—not to speak of the earlier
Palaeolithic industries—may have an important bearing
on this question; but there is as yet no evidence what-
soever to show whether the movements of Neolithic
man were westwards from China, to Central Asia, and
thence to Europe, or whether—as seems more likely
 80   NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

to the author—the movement was eastwards as well as
westwards from the intermediate cradle of Central Asia.

But if we are to look to Central Asia as the source of
our modern civilisation we must examine its geography
in more detail. Although the desert areas hold, and
may perhaps for ever hold, their secrets, the main out-
lines of the geography of the district do not seem to
have changed with the deterioration of climate. There
is no evidence for any earth movement on a large scale
since Neolithic times, and a note on the geography of
the area may help clear thinking in respect to possible
movements of peoples.

Suppose that a student could go up to an incredible
height in an aeroplane and see, laid as a map under his
feet, the whole of Asia and Europe. He would observe
that, except in the extreme east where the plains of
China allow free passage north and south, Asia can be
divided into a northern and a southern area (Plate 7).
The backbone is formed by some of the highest moun-
tains in the world. To the east lies the high plateau of
Tibet bounded to the northwards by the still higher
Kuen Lun mountains that border the southern edge of
the Tarim basin and the now desert Chinese Turkestan.
These high ranges north of Tibet merge into the great
Karakoram range, the Hindu Kush, and the main massif
of the Pamirs. To the south of Tibet arise the Hima-
layas and the Trans-Himalayas. To the north the
Pamirs link with the Tien-Shan range or Celestial
Mountains, which ultimately run along the northern
edge of Chinese Turkestan and vanish into the Gobi
Desert near the oasis of Hami. Westwards of the
Pamirs the mountains slope away into the deserts of
Russian Turkestan, and at this point there is an im-
portant gap between the mountains just described that
 
 82   NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

form an almost impassable barrier for mankind between
north and south, and the Elburz Mountains that border
the southern shore of the Caspian Sea and in turn link
on with the very difficult mountain masses of the
Caucasus area and Asia Minor. Between the two
Turkestans, over the Pamirs where they join the Tien-
Shan range to the north, there has been a passage for
human intercourse east and westwards since immemorial
antiquity. The main pass is the watershed between the
upper waters of the Tarim, that to-day disappear in the
sandy waste of Lob-Nor in Chinese Turkestan, and the
head waters of the Oxus basin, that to-day get no further
than the Aral Sea. Over this pass, b.c. 200, were taken
the coloured silks from China that delighted the Greek
world, and the woven tapestry that travelled eastwards
in exchange. Even then the climate of Chinese Turkes-
tan was very different from that of to-day, as is shown by
the work of Sir Aurel Stein, who has also collected from
this area stone implements the culture and age of which
have not yet been determined. They may possibly be
connected with some other early industries discovered
in Mongolia and the Gobi Desert which are in all
probability of Neolithic date. The Tien-Shan range,
which runs east and west just north of the Pamirs, is
joined by mountain masses running north-eastwards
that link it with the various Altai groups. These
mountain masses are pierced by a very important,
although extremely narrow, gap that again allows
intercourse between east and west; this is the so-called
Dzungarian Gate which to-day connects the plains of
Siberia with the desert area of Dzungaria, a continuation
of the great Gobi Desert. In the Middle Ages when
the “Mongol” hordes around the Gobi Desert were
beginning to expand and feel their strength this passage
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION   83

was of great importance. At one point the Altai group
north-east of the Dzungarian Gate, stretching up past
Lake Baikal, divides in two and encloses a large inland
area as yet little known. Here are the head waters of
the great Yenisei River that breaks through the moun-
tains in the famous pass called the Kempchik Bom. In
this region there still live to-day primitive hunters with
flocks of tame reindeer, men who until recently used
only the bow and arrow, now replaced, through the
agency of Siberian traders, by the more modern firearm.

To a certain extent, then, Central Asia is con-
nected with the vast stretches of the Gobi Desert,
which are in turn linked on without interruption with
the plains of China and of Chinese Turkestan. The
main connecting passages are over the Pamirs and down
the Oxus valley into Russian Turkestan, or through
the Dzungarian Gate direct into the Siberian plains.

South of the mountains to the west of the Hindu
Kush there exist to-day other great desert areas—
Seistan and Iran generally—and these communicate
without undue difficulty with the northern plains of
India. The only easy connection, however, between
these large desert areas to the south and the northern
regions is through the gap of Russian Turkestan.

Continuing westward, the backbone, including the
mountains of Georgia and Caucasia generally and those
of Asia Minor, ends with the Black and Aegean Seas.
The desert areas of Iran and Persia are to a certain extent
cutoff by mountain chains from the fertile lands watered
by the Euphrates and Tigris, but these mountain chains
can be passed or readily turned. Beyond lie deserts and
the coastal lands of Syria and Palestine which form
one limb of a fertile horseshoe-shaped area running
thence into Mesopotamia which forms the other limb.

6-2
 84   NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

Westward again lies the open sea, not readily traversed
until a later date when the art of navigation had been
properly discovered. Southwards, along what is now the
north coast of Africa, and down the Nile valley, com-
munication by water would be an easier matter. At only
one other point besides the Russian Turkestan gap could
migrations from the southern (now desert) areas in-
fluence Europe, and that is at the narrow passage of the
Dardanelles.

It would seem probable therefore that the migrations
that gave rise to the Early Neolithic cultures of Europe
came from areas north of the main backbone already
described, influenced more or less from the southern
area through the comparatively narrow Russian Turkes-
tan gap, while Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt derived
their different, if analogous, early cultures rather from
the southern areas1. By Early Metal Age times mankind
had become more skilful and more venturesome, prob-
ably with the rise of commerce; many of the simpler
mountain ranges were traversed, and we find the in-
fluence of such a centre of culture as Mesopotamia
spreading far and wide. It must also be remembered
that with the continual drying process that set in towards
the latter half of Neolithic times, mountain masses,
hitherto impassable owing to snow and glaciers, now
became free and open. We note from this date the
beginning of the use of the Brenner Pass for bringing
the Beaker pots of Italy to the folk of what is now
Bohemia; and at a slightly later date the amber of the
Baltic to the shores of the Mediterranean.

One of the few sites that have been investigated in
Central Asia is Anau, a delta-oasis now situated close to
the Central Asian Railway, not far from Astrabad. It

1 Sir Flinders Petrie has lately sought to prove that the earliest
Egyptians came from the southern Caucasus.
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION   8$

lies to the north of a small range of mountains that to
some extent occupy part of the Russian Turkestan gap
that we have already alluded to. Two mounds (or
kurgans, as they are called) were investigated at the
beginning of the present century by an American
expedition under the direction of Raphael Pumpellyo).
These mounds were formed by successive human habi-
tations, each new generation building on the ruins of
the former. Four different and successive cultures were
discovered and the following account gives a very brief
resume of the finds. It is interesting to note that wheat
and barley, denoting agriculture, appear before the
domestication of animals.

culture i (Earliest)

Handmade painted ware, geometric designs only.

Cultivation of wheat (Triticum vulgar e) and barley (Hordeum
distichuni).

Rectangular houses of air-dried bricks.

Flint awls and flakes, mace heads of stone, bone awls.

Spindle whorls, milling stones, turquoise beads.

Some evidence of the existence of copper and lead.

Children buried in contracted position under the houses.

At first, during early centuries only, wild animals such as ox,
sheep, gazelle, deer, horse, fox, wolf, probably hunted for food.

Later local domestication of ox (Bos nomadicus\ pig (Sus
palustris, the turbary pig), horse (doubtfully domesticated), and
sheep. Of the two varieties of sheep one was large-horned,
while the other, the turbary sheep, is not found till towards the
end of this period.

Note absence of: potter’s wheel, gold, silver, tin, celts, arrow
heads, lapis lazuli, dog, camel, and goat.

CULTURE II

Similar to I but showing in addition:

Polychrome painted ware.

Bottomless earthenware bake-oven pots, pivotal door stones,
flint sickles, sling stones, copper pins, lapis lazuli and cornelian
beads.
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

86

Domestic animals now include: short-homed oxen, camels,
the dog, and hornless sheep.

Note continued absence of: potter’s wheel, gold, silver, bronze,
arrow heads, celts, etc.

CULTURE III

Similar to above but showing addition of:

Potter’s wheel and furnace, and some incised pottery.

Alloying with tin and lead appears, also arrow heads made of
copper, stone and obsidian.

Terra-cotta figurines (comp. Butmir) of goddesses, bulls,
cows, etc., are found.

Note continued absence of: stone or metal celts or burnt
bricks. Still no iron or glazed or incrusted ware present.

CULTURE IV

Iron used and therefore outside our subject.

Practically speaking this is the only site in this
most important area that has been at all properly in-
vestigated, we cannot therefore build too much theory
upon it; it is to be hoped that, when political circum-
stances permit, continued investigation may be under-
taken and further work accomplished. Mr Pumpelly
attempted to establish an absolute chronology for these
cultures, mainly by consideration of the growth of the
mounds and so on. Naturally this is an exceedingly
difficult proposition, and there is no reason to assume
that the rate of growth of the material was constant.
It is probable that the estimate of ten thousand years
ago for the earliest culture is considerably too high.

HABITATIONS

A word or two must be said as to the actual Neolithic
houses and habitations. These may roughly be divided
into three series: (i) Land habitations, (2) Pile dwel-
lings, (3) Cave homes.
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

87

LAND HABITATIONS

The floor of the hut consisting of dried mud, or in
loess lands of compressed loam, was often partially sunk
in the ground. It was often surrounded by large boulders
which supported the wall and roof beams. Wattle and
daub work filled the interstices between the wooden
framework. Huts were usually congregated together to
form definite villages and these were sometimes placed
in sites well chosen for defence and even fortified with
ramparts. In the prehistoric villages each house or
group of houses generally possessed what is known as
a food pit. This consists as a rule of a funnel-shaped
shaft some two or three yards deep and in it provisions
were probably stored. The food pit is found still in
villages of as late a date as the Early Iron Age, if not
later. It is rather depressing for the excavator who was
hoping that he was dealing with a Neolithic food pit,
to come across, after hours of patient work, an Early
Iron Age chisel from near its very bottom!

As a typical example of one of these Neolithic homes
we may take a Belgian fond de cab anew. Let us join a
party of exploration from Libge to the Hesbayen plateau.
In all directions spread ploughed fields. The leader of
the party is armed with a long thin staff something over
a metre long and ending in a sort of corkscrew. Every
now and then in suitable places where fonds de cabanes
have been reported this staff is plunged into the ground
and then carefully withdrawn. The corkscrew end is
then examined; if the fragments of earth brought up
on it are merely the ordinary soil there is nothing to
hope for on excavation at that point. If, on the other
hand, a certain amount of black cinder material is seen
with the earth then we are in the middle of an old
 88   NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION

Neolithic house. Excavation is started from that point
down to a depth at which the cinder layer is reached;
then continued carefully to right and left to determine
the exterior walls of the hut emplacement, which in
the case of these Belgian jonds de cabanes are always
buried a foot or two in the ground. On being excavated
the hut emplacement is usually found to be circular or
oval, besides being somewhat splayed, so that the
diameter is wider at the top than at the bottom. The
sinking of the hut emplacement in the ground was no
doubt due to the added warmth thereby gained, and
also to the fact that a lower roof would be needed;
naturally this would only be possible in dry areas, such
as the high Hesbayen plateau, as in low lands such
hutments would be continually water-logged. A hearth
marked out with stones occurs within the hutment as
well as tools, pots and other household furniture.
Occasionally it is found that not a home but a workshop
hut has been excavated, and here pottery is for the most
part absent, while blocks of flint, nuclei, finished and
unfinished tools, and fragments flaked off abound. That
the roofs of these hutments were formed of joist-like
beams with a sort of wattle and daub filling the inter-
stices is attested by the finding now and then of frag-
ments of clay which have fallen on the hearth and been
burnt hard, but still bear the imprint of the twigs and
small boughs on which they had been smeared.

Elsewhere in Europe still more complicated and well-
built rectangular houses, sometimes with an internal
division, are found, especially towards the end of Neo-
lithic times. The store pit and, of course, the hearth, are
the chief features. Corner posts with a varying number of
intermediate wall posts supported the roof. Near Mayen
in the Rhine province of Germany three or four such
 NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION   89