Topic: Our Early Ancestors by M. C. Burkitt Publication date 1929

[Prometheus]

It seems probable that in Late Palaeolithic times
England, like Moravia and other parts of eastern Europe
as well as Mentone and South Spain, had been peopled
by the Aurignacian race but was never actually inhabited
by Magdalenian man, whose cradle and focus appears
to have been to the west in France. The influence of this
glorious French culture was, however, felt far and wide1,
indeed isolated finds of true Magdalenian type have
been recognised here and there in our own country;
especially in the cave area of the south-west, but also
as far north as Creswell Crags on the border line between
Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. England was no
very suitable land for mankind at this date, especially
the eastern parts2 that remained long under the direct

1 The Aurignacian culture developed in England contemporary with,
and influenced by, the Magdalenian culture of France is sometimes
called “Provincial Magdalenian

z An Upper Palaeolithic industry similar to that found at Belloy-
sur-Somme (France) has been noted in East Anglia and at North Cray
in Kent.

It-3
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influence of the Scandinavian icefields. However, U pper
Palaeolithic culture as a whole seems to show a simple
evolution from an original Aurignacian stock, and at
Creswell Crags recent investigation would seem to
indicate a direct evolution to something recalling Meso-
lithic industriesd). A small but interesting industry,
comprising core scrapers, burins, blades and points
(though without the Tardenoisean burin) has been
lately found by Miss Layard one to two feet below the
surface at a site in the Colne Valley. This industry
probably also belongs to the very late Upper Palaeo-
lithic development.

Occurrences of Azilian culture in West Yorkshire
near Settle, on the shore at Whitburn near Newcastle,
in the River Dee near Kirkcudbright, and in West
Scotland, at Oban and on the island of Oronsay, have
been noted. These are extremely anomalous finds, and
it is by no means easy to see how such examples link
on with the culture of the Pyrenees. The nearest con-
necting link is a not very typical harpoon found near
Liege in Belgium, which connects it with typical in-
dustries found just south of Basle(2).

The West Yorkshire site near Settle is in Victoria
Cave, which was excavated with great care towards the
end of the nineteenth century, almost every object being
carefully mapped on to a sort of latitude and longitude
framework, so that it is almost possible to reconstruct
the whole deposit to-day as it was before it was dug.
Unfortunately, however, at the time of the excavations
the effects of burrowing animals were not recognised,
and for practical purposes the results from a strati-
graphical point or view are perfectly useless. The
deposits themselves are not horizontal, but at the back
of the cave the floor level rises with the result that the
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burrowing animals, which abound, had only to excavate
horizontally to intermix objects on the bottom layer
with those from the top. Thus we find bones of cave
bear from the basal level, not to speak of a hippopotamus
bone weathered almost to a pebble, intermixed with
Romano-British objects at the top of the deposit; while
at the base, below Glacial deposits, are found bones
clearly cut by a metal tool 1 Only two definite occupa-
tion layers can be recognised: a top one, Romano-
British in date, that has yielded much rich enamelled
work, and an under layer with but few objects, the age
of which is difficult to determine. An Azilian harpoon
(Plate 1, fig. la), very definite and typical, though with-
out any attachment hole through the centre of the base
of the stem, was found at the mouth of the cave in a
talus from this lower level. That nothing can be hoped
from stratigraphy at this site is further attested by
the fact that a carved bone bead of Late Celtic date
was found close to the harpoon. The difference
in the preservation of the two objects is marked.
The bead still contains a certain quantity of organic
matter whereas the harpoon has become completely
fossilised.

The finds at Oban are still more definitely Azilian.
There are two sites, the one, called MacArthur’s Cave,
was discovered as long ago as 1894 during quarrying
operations, it is near the centre of the modern town;
the other is a rock shelter at Drumvaig—a suburb of
Oban—now in the back yard of a row of tenement
houses.

There havebeen considerable earth movements affect-
ing the coast line of West Scotland in comparatively
recent times, geologically speaking, and the cliff in
which MacArthur’s Cave was situated—it has been
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almost completely quarried away now for building
purposes—has always been considered as marking an
old sea shore. The section in the cave was as follows:
at the top shingle, which covers a layer of black earth
in which two long-headed skulls were found. Under-
neath this black layer occurred the main archaeological
deposit comprising a sort of midden mixed with ashes
and some sea sand. An industry consisting of scrapers,
flakes, etc., as well as bone awls and harpoons, was
collected. The latter were made of deer’s antler and
were for the most part of good size, the largest measur-
ing some six inches in length, having four barbs on
each side of the stem, and being pierced with an oval
hole through the centre of the base of the stem, for
attachment purposes. Some of the other and smaller
examples, as in the case of the example from Victoria
Cave, Settle, have no attachment hole.

It is important to realise the significance of the fact
that sea sand was found intermixed with the main
archaeological layer, for the sea to-day lies some 30 feet
below the level of the site of MacArthur’s Cave, and
100 yards or so away. Again, the shingle layer covering
the black earth deposit must have been blown in by
storms at a time when the cave stood near the high-
water-mark level. The earth movements, then, that
caused this raised beach of West Scotland must be
subsequent to the inhabitation of MacArthur’s Cave
by Mesolithic man; they would seem, therefore, to be no
older than the Neolithic Age.

Somewhat similar finds have been discovered in
the island of Oronsay. They consist of at least five
shell mounds or middens, the most important being
locally called Caisteal-nan-Gillean. This site consists of
a hillock some 150 feet in diameter and 25 feet high,
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the upper layers of which are composed of sands
with a covering of turf and the archaeological deposit
is only some eight feet in thickness. This deposit,
consisting of ashes and sand, has yielded, besides
quantities of shells, limpets, etc., an industry similar
to that of MacArthur’s Cave, including eleven har-
poons said to have been lost at the Fishery Exhibition
in London in 1883. Except that bones of the great auk
occur, the fauna of those days appears to have been the
same as that of mediaeval times.

Tardenoisean culture spread over our country, and
persisted late. It is not always easy to determine
whether a given pigmy industry is really Tardenoisean
or Early Neolithic in date; H. Warren claims to have
found in very Late Neolithic or Copper Age cultures
geometric types, but without the typical tools. Pro-
bably Tardenoisean in culture are finds from Con-
stantine Bay, near Pads tow (3), North Cornwall; near
Brighton (4); at Hastings (s); at Aberystwith; on the
Pennines(6); near the coast of Northumberland and
Durham where the few sites that are known are about a
quarter of a mile inland from the present coast line (7).
Pigmy industries have been found in Surrey, Sussex,
at Land’s End, on the Cleveland Hills and at many other
sites, but the culture is uncertain. There is some doubt
as to whether the microliths found in East Anglia and
Lincolnshire should be assigned to the Tardenoisean
or to the Maglemosean culture. The most important
and carefully studied of these areas is that of the Pennines
between Rochdale, Manchester and Huddersfield, where
the chain narrows and sites are therefore concentrated
(Plate 23). At a time when the lowlands were doubtless
filled with forests, this upland area must have been
fairly suitable for habitation. Various sites have been
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excavated by F. Buckley. They consist for the most part
of -workshop “floors ” on the tops of hillocks, the actual
height above sea level varying from 1000— iyoo feet.
Two distinct types of industry have been noted, the one
—on stratigraphical grounds judged to be slightly later
than the other—closely connected with the Tarden-
oisean culture of Belgium, the other probably more
local in origin. This sequence, however, is based solely
on what was found in an excavation at a single site on
the north side of Warcock Hill, Marsden (Yorkshire),
where the two industries are in contact, and further
evidence is required before the matter can be conclusively
proved. Both industries comprise small scrapers,trimmed
flakes and various pigmy tools; the difference between the
two is mainly that the later industry, which is rare, con-
tains broad flakes and tools, no angle gravers but abund-
ant Tardenoisean ones, while in the earlier or local series
the implements and flakes are narrow, Tardenoisean
gravers are absent but the angle type though rare does
occur. Almost all these workshop sites had a small
hearth; and burnt flints and carbonised wood, that can
sometimes be identified as oak, birch, etc., have been
collected. While the newer broad-blade industry is
undoubtedly closely related to the Tardenoisean culture
of Belgium, the earlier local series may be compared
with the final developments of the British Upper
Palaeolithic culture, the first phases of which, at any
rate, are to be seen in the top levels at Creswell Crags.
It is certainly true that in the narrow-blade series a
number of pigmy shouldered points are found corre-
sponding somewhat to similar finds at Creswell and in
the upper levels at Mentone where a rather similar
evolution of the Aurignacian culture seems to have been
going on. To the east of the Pennines in South-East
 Plate 23. English Tardenoisean industries from: W, Yorkshire and Penmnes near Marsden (a~j).
Feacehaven near Brighton {k, l, m). Hastings («). Bamburgh (0, p). Narrow-blade industry
from the Marsden district (r, s, t, u, *v, wo, x). Broad-blade industry from the Marsden
district (j’>   a'> b'y q)*

ON

NO

AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND
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Yorkshire two Maglemosean harpoons and a stone
industry have been discovered (. The situation is
therefore of very great interest; to the west of the
Pennines we have Azilian, on the hills Tardenoisean,
and to the east Maglemosean industries. One day,
perhaps, a definite stratigraphy will give us the relation
of the three to one another. Pigmy tools, but without
gravers, are found at Scunthorpe in Lincolnshire, as well
as further south over the sandy areas and “brecks” of
Norfolk and Suffolk. These pigmy tools sometimes
show a very deep and apparently old patina, and it is
not impossible that some at any rate will be found to
belong to the Maglemosean culture (Plate 24). At the
flint mines at Grimes Graves (Norfolk) a stratigraphical
sequence has been in part made out by L. Armstrong,
who has discovered a certain amount of art in the older
layer. This consists for the most part of rather mean-
ingless lines scratched on flint crust; but in one case a
not badly drawn deer is figured. The technique, how-
ever, cannot be described as Palaeolithic, and it may
be that this early industry at Grimes Graves is also of
Maglemosean or possibly of “Arctic” culture, which,
as has been seen, is closely connected with the Magle-
mosean, though rather later in time.

Coming to post-Mesolithic times we are enabled,
thanks to the researches of H. Warren, to call geological
evidence to our aid and so obtain a sort of stratigraphical
sequence in the low-lying areas of Essex(g). It appears
that at some moment in Neolithic times a land submerg-
ence set in with the result that the land sank below the
level of the sea. This is just the reverse of what took
place along the coast line of the west of Scotland, as has
just been seen above.

An ideal section—never yet seen in its entirety, but
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deduced from a combination of various sections is as
follows:—

Re-emergence of the
land

Land below sea level

Land sinking
Land sinking

Present salting sur-
face

Tidal silt or scrobicu-
laria clay
Peat

Buried prehistoric
sites surface
Rainwash = locally
grey marsh clay
Pleistocene brick-
earths

Beaker folk industry

Neolithic industry
with arrow heads

Other important sites in this connection are on the
coasts of northern Ireland in Antrim, Londonderry,
etc. A good example is at Whitepark Bay(io). The
geological situation resembles that in Scotland, there
having been a considerable submergence of the land in
very early post-Glacial times and re-emergence in Late
Mesolithic times. On this re-elevated land surface lived
Neolithic man, as is evidenced by the finding of great
quantities of rough tools—cores, scrapers, flakes,
chipped axes and the like. By the River Bann many
small chipped flints have been collected which at first
recall a Mesolithic industry. No burins occur, how-
ever, and H. Warren claims that similar industries, with
typical Late Neolithic or Earliest Metal Age .types,
occur sporadically in Essex, and so these River Bann
specimens are probably also to be classed as Late
Neolithic in age. A peculiar type of tool is also found
in the same locality. This consists of a broad, flat,
pointed flake, having at the basea short stout central tang.
The tool resembles a coarse arrow head without any
secondary working except around the tang. This type
has not been recognised elsewhere in Neolithic in-
dustries (Plate 14, no. 3).
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Neolithic man has left for us, as evidence of his
culture, stone industries, and more rarely pottery, mines
where the raw material for tool making was procured,
and burials in megalithic constructions known ordin-
arily as “Long Barrows.” The stone industries are
for the most part surface finds and comprise the usual
celts, fabricators, scrapers, awls, arrow heads, etc. They
occur commonly on the sandy upland regions of Suffolk
and Norfolk overlooking the Cambridgeshire fens;
they are not found in the former forest lands and hardly
even along the river valleys. As has been pointed out
in a previous chapter the Neolithic celt starts by
having a circular section at the butt end, while at the
dawn of the Metal Age the tool became flatter and
consequently the section through the butt more oval.
Both varieties are found in East Anglia and it may
therefore be presumed that the whole of Neolithic times
is represented by these surface finds. However the
matter is not quite simple, and certain tools, at any
rate, will probably be found to be older and to belong
to the Mesolithic period. On the other hand flint was
in use in England until Iron Age times and, without
stratigraphy to help the investigator, it is often almost
impossible to be certain of the Neolithic date. True
Neolithic pottery is rarely found in this country, though
a few examples have been found in some finds de
cabanes near Peterborough excavated by Wyman
Abbott (11). Neolithic pots have also come from the
Thames, as for example a beautifully decorated vessel
with a round bottom from Mortlake (Plate 16, no. 9 ), and
once or twice fragments have been found in long barrows.

Flint mines whence prehistoric man obtained the
raw material necessary for his tool making have been
found in several places in England; they approximate
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in type to that of St Gertrude, South Holland, already
described in chapter m. The two most important flint
mines in England are those at Grimes Graves (Norfolk),
and at Cissbury (Susses). Crossing the railway line at
Brandon station, take the right hand road towards
Mundford. After a mile or so, again take the right-
hand fork and half-way between it and a little wood
seen ahead take a cart track to the right which more or
less follows a shallow valley in the heath. A mile or so
ahead, just to the right of the shallow valley, a coppice
is seen, this is Grimes Graves (ia). In the coppice one
finds numerous shallow cup-like depressions, which are
the nearly filled up shafts—originally some forty feet
or so deep—that were sunk to tap the flint-bearing
strata of chalk and from the bottom of which radiated
horizontal galleries as at St Gertrude. The so-called
“floors” where the raw chunks of flint were roughly
trimmed, lie along the edge of the shallow valley already
mentioned. A certain amount of stratigraphical evidence
has been accumulated showing that these floors are not
all contemporary and that two ages can be demonstrated.
Some rough scratched lines, as well as a quite well-
drawn engraving of a deer, on pieces of flint crust
were collected from the earlier industry. These have
already been mentioned in another connection. They
may be connected with the Maglemosean or its des-
cendant the Arctic culture, though examples of rough
scratched lines were also observed at another mine (or
rather prehistoric quarry) and factory site in North
Wales at Penmaenmawr which is of Neolithic date (13).
The industries at Grimes Graves have been claimed as
Palaeolithic, in part at any rate, and it has been urged
that flint mines existed at this site as early as Mous-
terian times. A miner’s bag of tools is not “home”
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[Prometheus]

furniture, and the industries, comprising as they do
tools useful for extraction of the raw material in the
mines themselves and their subsequent rough trimming
at the “floors” or factory sites, would lead us to expect
rather unusual types of tools. There is really nothing
peculiarly Palaeolithic, Neolithic types occur and the
fauna is modern. At the Cissbury mines a chalk lamp
was discovered placed on a shelf of chalk so as to light
the miner at his work.

For Neolithic burials we must turn to the so-called
“Long Barrows”(i4) which occur most frequently in
the counties of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire and their
surrounding districts. Such barrows are elongated oval
mounds frequently pointing east and west, being higher
and broader at the eastern end. The body or bodies
were placed in a chamber built of large blocks of stone
and approached by a similarly built passage with some-
times a door or portal on the outside. In other words
we are dealing with the “passage grave” or its deriva-
tive. A good example of a long barrow occurs at West
Kennet near Avebury (Wiltshire). Here the barrow,
336 feet long by 75 feet wide at the eastern end, was
originally surrounded by a line of upright stones, the
intervals between which were filled up by horizontal
courses of dry-walling. Some of the stone slabs forming
the roof of the passage and chamber under the eastern
end of the barrow weighed about a ton each. Four
long-headed skeletons were found in the chamber, also
some scraps of Neolithic pottery. These four persons
may have been the original tenants of the barrow, but
unfortunately it must have been reopened, possibly
more than once, as apparently later pottery and other
bones were also found. In the Cotswolds the dry-
walling edging sometimes forms a heart-shaped rather
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than an oval ground-plan at the eastern end. Such a case
is “Hetty Pegler’s Tump” at Uley (Gloucestershire)
excavated by Dr Fry in 1821. Originally four chambers
opened from the central passage, 22 feet long, which
was terminated by a low portal only three feet high but
roofed by an enormous stone lintel 8 feet long and 41-
feet thick. This doorway is in the middle of the eastern
end, where the incurving heart-shaped walls meet.
Several skeletons of mixed dates were found—two of
the crania were sent to Guy’s Hospital museum. An
interesting fact about the skeletons found in these
barrows is that they do not seem to have been placed
there immediately after death. Indeed occasionally, as
at Pole’s Wood South (Gloucestershire), the chamber
is too small to have contained the complete bodies of
the skeletons had they been so interred. In other words
these tombs were in many cases mere ossuaries.
Cremation does not occur. It must be noted that some-
times one barrow contains several chambers, with
possibly incomplete passages, and that often the door-
way seems to have become merely symbolic as it has
sometimes been found as a purely external structure
leading to no chamber behind. Large stone doorways
to the chamber itself, pierced with a hole big enough to
admit a body and called “porthole” entrances, are feirly
common on the continent but rare in England. Fre-
quently the covering mound or tumulus has, to a greater
or less extent, disappeared, leaving the large stones
standing naked, thus giving a somewhat dolmen-like
impression. A Late Neolithic date is generally admitted
for these barrows, a few scraps of Neolithic pottery,
arrow heads and javelin points, but never metal, having
been found with the primary interments.

Another kind of barrow of circular form is frequently
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177

found in England. These are called “Round Barrows.”
They are, however, of later date often containing
cremation burials of a round-headed folk associated
with Bronze Age industries. They appear to correspond
with the stone kist as there is no passage to the internal
chamber which is generally completely closed. But all
megalithic monuments are not necessarily graves, even
though they may be connected therewith, and their
purposes have given rise to much speculation. Such
monuments are the stone circle at Avebury (Wiltshire),
the Deer Park near Sligo (Ireland) and of course the
classic example of Stonehenge, about which a few words
must now be saidcu).

Originally Stonehenge must have consisted of (1)
a surrounding earthwork circle approached from the
north-east by a similar avenue, (2) an outer circle of
local, so-called “sarcen” stones with lintels joining
their tops. These lintels were held in place by tenons
on the uprights and corresponding sockets on the under
surfaces of the crosspieces, while each lintel was secured
to its neighbour by a similar groove and ridge joint.
(3) an inner circle of smaller upright “blue stones”—
a rock foreign to the district, (4) five great sarcen tri-
lithons arranged to form a horseshoe, opening towards
the avenue. The largest central trilithon must have been
some 25 feet high, (5) an inner horseshoe of upright
“blue stones,” (6) the altar stone, a large recumbent
slab, 16 feet by 3 feet 4 inches, placed in the arch of
the “blue stone” horseshoe on the so-called axis. This
axis is an imaginary straight line passing from the centre
of the middle trilithon, through the centre of the circle
and out down the earthwork avenue. Unfortunately of
course a very large number of the stones are no longer
in position. Besides these stones belonging to the main

B

12
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building there are, or were, some half-dozen isolated
ones variously placed with reference to the circle. Of
these four, or rather two now existing ones and the holes
where two others must have been, are to be found just
within the surrounding earthwork. They are arranged
symmetrically, each occupying a position the same dis-
tance from the centre of the circle and each making an
angle of 22% degrees with that diameter of the building
which cuts the axis at right angles. Each pair thus
makes an angle of 45 degrees at the centre of the circle.
Then there are the “Slaughter Stone” and “Hele
Stone,” which stand in the avenue but not centrally.
There has been much unproductive controversy as to
the purpose of the latter. It now seems fairly certain
that the blue stones of which the inner circle and horse-
shoe are formed must have been brought from the
Prescelly mountains in Pembrokeshire. They are made
of a rock quite foreign to Wiltshire and Dr H. Thomas
says that no other area in Britain except Prescelly can
meet all the requirements necessary as a source of supply
for these Stonehenge megaliths(i6). Also it can hardly
be coincidence that the Prescelly neighbourhood is very
rich in stone circles, etc., and was clearly a sacred area.
As regards a possible date for the erection of Stone-
henge, opinions vary, some assigning it to the end of
the Neolithic or beginning of the Copper Age. No
tools really helpful for dating purposes have been found,
and we may dismiss, as not giving any conclusive
evidence, a small copper stain on a stone which was once
made much of by archaeologists. Neither does the
complete absence of metal tools prove a Neolithic date,
as even in the Copper Age such precious and somewhat
soft implements would hardly have been used for the
rough work of dressing the stones. Again various ere-
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   179

mations have been found around, in one case in the hole
for one of the four symmetrically placed stones men-
tioned above, and here, though the cremation is of a
later date than the Neolithic period, it is difficult to
deduce any satisfactory theory therefrom. Lastly the
all-important question of the direction of the axis must
be noted. It has often been observed by persons stand-
ing behind the central trilithon and looking down the
avenue that this axis seems to be directed to the point
on the horizon at which the midsummer sunrise takes
place. As a matter of fact this is not strictly so, and
observations and calculations as accurate as fallen stones,
etc. permit, have shown by how much it is incorrect.
But this point of the midsummer sunrise has for some
time been moving slowly eastwards at a rate approxi-
mately known, and it is therefore possible to arrive at
a date when the direction of the Stonehenge axis would
have been correct. Such a date is given as about
b.c. 1840 or, allowing for the maximum of possible
error, between b.c. 2040 and b.c. 1640. It is con-
sidered more than probable that the builders of the
monument did intend their axis direction to be correct,
and this may perhaps give us some clue as to the pos-
sible purpose of the building. Religiously it may have
marked the northern limit of the “Sun God’s” path,
or more practically, may have had calendar-like uses
very helpful to primitive agriculturists. At any rate
the vicinity of Stonehenge was long regarded as a sacred
area, for many barrows of the Bronze Age have been
discovered in the neighbourhood.

A distribution map of the Neolithic cultures
in England is very instructive, as we note how
dependent these folk were on forest growth. Sites occur
thickly on the sandy borders of the fen country in

12-2
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Suffolk and Norfolk, where game of many kinds was
plentiful; agriculture was little practised, as is evidenced
by the almost complete absence of sickles. The hinter-
land on the “brecks” and warrens doubtless provided
a scanty but sufficient pasturage for the few flocks.
Even the valleys of the fen rivers were hardly occupied,
and the great mass of the country contains scarcely any
remains of these peopled). Most of the Midlands and
the western border of England proper were also un-
inhabited, and in Late Neolithic and Early Metal Age
times, when considerable movements of people took
place westwards, it was North and South Wales that
received independent contributions from the east, the
whole of the central district remaining barren. Doubt-
less these forest lands were unsuitable for human
existence in Neolithic times.

England was not wholly neglected by the Battle-Axe
folk and examples of their axes occur; but the chief
event that took place at the end of Neolithic times was
the arrival of a new folk called the Beaker people,
whom we have already mentioned in chapter v. Appa-
rently cradled in Spain the culture spread over large
parts of Europe, though the industries show certain
variations in different districts. It was our eastern
shores that were first invaded and the immigration
seems to have come by way of the Rhine. It is important
to note that the type of beaker found in Brittany is
absent or very rare in England and that it was certainly
not by that route that the culture was introduced into
this country. The invaders differed somewhat from the
former inhabitants of the land. The Neolithic folk
seem to have been of moderate stature, long-headed,
oval-faced, narrow-nosed, with small features. They
were not at all a powerfully built race. The new-comers
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   l8l

on the other hand—according to Abercrombyos)—
were characterised by a short square skull showing a
great development of the superciliary ridges and eye-
brows. The cheek-bones, nose and chin were prominent
and the powerful lower jaw was supplied with large
teeth. They were a tall, strongly built race and must
have presented—at any rate as far as the men were
concerned—a fierce, brutal appearance. The dead were
buried in round barrows, inhumation being practised.
They knew about the use of copper and introduced into
England the beaker type of pot (Plate 19). These are
often beautifully decorated by means of a sort of cogged-
wheel tool,the pattern running in zones round the pot. But
the ornamentation was also often incised with a pointed
instrument and combinations show beautiful and com-
plicated motifs. For the most part the beakers had no
handles, but a few handled cups ornamented with
characteristic decoration have been collected. These
may be connected with variations which were produced
in Central Europe in Beaker Age times. Abercromby
distinguishes three main types of beaker common in
England. Each of these types can in turn be sub-
divided—a matter of considerable local importance.
Although these people introduced copper, they still
manufactured most of their tools from flint, and scrapers,
arrow heads and the like—often beautifully made—
have been found. It is the opinion of the writer that
the glassy or waxy appearance often seen on some of
the finely made scrapers, “slugs,” etc., due to fine
ripple markings on each facet caused by the use of
pressure flaking technique, can be taken as indicating
the presence of the Beaker culture. This is sometimes
helpful in determining whether a given industry is to
be classed as of Neolithic or of Beaker Age. The glassy
 182 from mesolithic to copper

or waxy appearance on the tools was very marked in
the case of some Beaker Age interments in a barrow at
Barton Mills, excavated by Dr Cyril Fox in 1924(19).
It must not be considered, however, as a sine qua non
for all tools made by the Beaker folk. The immense
majority of English beakers, generally associated with
burials, are found in the eastern part of the island (so).
But examples are found in Wiltshire and in South
Wales, and a specimen has also been described from
Baroose farm, Lonan parish, Isle of Man—its unusual
flattened and decorated lip showing “Food vessel”
influence of the Bronze Age1. One or two have also
been discovered in Co. Down, Northern Ireland, and
some further examples have been found in North Wales
and a number in the Peak district. In East Anglia the
Beaker folk, as did their Neolithic forerunners, pre-
ferred the high sandy lands overlooking the fens where
food was easily obtainable, and it would seem that,
arriving as invaders, they in part displaced the older
inhabitants. It is in Beaker Age times that the fen
islands were for the first time inhabited properly, and
the theory that the old inhabitants were driven by the
new-comers to take up their abode in less favourable
and more fever-stricken quarters is plausible. Honey
Hill near Manea is a good site for studying this ques-
tion, as a rich industry, by all appearances contemporary
but comprising Beaker folk examples among the
numerous Neolithic types, has been collected there.
At various sites in Scotland, as for example the Culbin
sands and Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire), tiny scrapers
and well-made arrow heads, associated with “whorls”

1 Certain “scribed” stones have also been published. The carving
consists of a series of grooves intercrossing and running in all directions
over the rocks. A few more definite figures, including a spiral, do,
however, occur. No certain age can be assigned for this art group (ai).
 AGE TIMES IN ENGLAND   183

and small polished celts, sometimes pierced with a small
hole for suspension purposes, have been found. The
date of these industries is uncertain, but a very early
Metal Age is probable. The Beaker folk never obtained
a permanent footing in this country; after a time they
simply seem to have merged with the older folk, though
their influence continued to affect the original Neolithic
stock which seems to have come again into its own.
This has been rather neatly shown by R. Smith, of the
British Museum, in a study of the evolution of a particular
kind of pot dating from the Bronze Age and called the
“Food vessel.” This is a peculiarly British type and
its origin can be clearly traced to aNeolithic ancestors).
Neolithic pottery is rare in England, though one or
two examples, recalling in shape a proto-type of the
Bronze Age “Food vessel,” have been dredged from
the Thames.

But England was not to be left completely isolated
to work out her own salvation. A fresh invasion, this
time of a bronze-using people practising cremation,
arrived on our shores, and the history of the country
passes off the stage set for this little book.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   L. Armstrong. £4Excavations at Mother Grundy’s Parlour,

Creswell Crags, Derbyshire.” Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst. vol. lv,
Jan.—June, 1925.

(2)   See bibliography (5) at end of chapter 1.

(3)   R. A. Bullen. Harlyn Bay. Padstow, 1912. A not very complete

account with little reference to the earlier Mesolithic industries.

(4)   J. B. Calkin. “Pygmy and other flint implements found at Peace-

haven.” Sussex Arch. Coll. vol. lxv.

[Prometheus]

(5)   W. J. L. Abbott. The Prehistoric Races of Hastings. Reprinted

from St Pauls Magazine, 1898.

(6)   See bibliography (10) at end of chapter 1.

(7)   F. Buckley. “Microlithic industries of NorthumberlandArchaeo-

logia Aeliana, 4th series, vol. 1, 1925. See also Proceedings of
the Soc. Antiq. of Newcastle, 3rd series, vol. x, 1923.
 184 MESOLITHIC TIMES IN ENGLAND

(   L. Armstrong. “Two East Yorkshire bone harpoons.” Man,

1922 (Sept).

(9)   S. H. Warren. “On the correlation of the Prehistoric cFloor’

at Hullbridge with similar beds elsewhere.” Essex Naturalist,
vol. xvi, 1911.

-----“The classification of the Prehistoric Remains of Eastern

Essex.” Journ. Roy. Anth. Inst. Jan .-June, 1912.

-----“The dating of Surface Flint Implements and the evidences

of the Submerged Peat Surface.” Proc. Prehist. Soc. E. Anglia,
vol. m, pt 1, 1918-1919.

(10)   W. J. Knowles. “Report on the Prehistoric Remains from the

Sand-hills of the Coast of Ireland.” Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.
Series 111, vol. 1.

---- “ Prehistoric Stone Implements from the River Bann and

Lough Neagh.” Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. xxx, sect, c, No. 7.
G. Coffey. “The Larne Raised Beach.” Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.
vol. xxv, sect, c, No. 6.

(11)   G. W. Abbott and R. Smith. “The Discovery of Prehistoric

Pits at Peterborough and the Development of Neolithic Pottery.”
Archaeologia, vol. lxii.

E. T. Leeds. “Further Discoveries of the Neolithic and Bronze
Ages at Peterborough.” Ant. Journ. vol. n.

(12)   A Special Committee. “Report of the Excavations at Grimes

Graves....” Prehist. Soc. of E. Anglia,, March-May 1914.
L. Armstrong. See Proceedings of the Prehist, Soc. of E. Anglia,
vol. hi, pt 3; vol. hi, pt 4; vol. iv, pt 1; vol. iv, pt 2.

(13)   See bibliography (9) at end of chapter n.

(14)   O. G. S. Crawford. The Long Barrows of the Cotswolds. 1925.

(15)   E. H. Stone. The Stones of Stonehenge. 1924.

(16)   W. D. Bushell. “Amongst the Prescelly Circles.” Arch.

Cambrensis, July 1911.

(17)   C. Fox. Archaeology of the Cambridge Region. 1923.

(18)   J. Abercromby. A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great

Britain and Ireland. 1912.

(19)   C. Fox and Earl Cawdor. “The Beacon Hill Barrow, Barton

Mills, Suffolk.” Camb. Antiq. Soc. vol. xxvi, 1925.

(20)   C. Fox. “On two Beakers of the Early Bronze Age...with a

record of the distribution of Beaker-pottery in England and
Wales.” Cambrian Arch. Assoc. June 1925.

(21)   J. Quine. “Early Scribed Rocks of the Isle of Man, with notes on

the early pottery ofthe Island.” Camb. Antiq. Soc. vol.xxiv, 1923.
 CHAPTER VIII

THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA AND
THE COPPER AGE

In prehistoric times the Mediterranean area was
culturally considerably in advance of the rest of
Europe, and it has therefore to be treated separately.
While throughout the rest of Europe metal was un-
known and only stone was used for tool making, the
Mediterranean folk were not only using copper, but
in some cases had learnt the hardening effects of the
addition of tin, and had begun to manufacture bronze.
The use of metal and consequent progress in culture
extended right round the central sea; in Spain for ex-
ample we find copper in full use at a time contemporary
with the later developments of the New Stone Age
further north. Doubtless this was due in part to the
fact that there are large quantities of easily worked
copper ore in the country, but there are as well clear
indications of influences from the progressive eastern
Mediterranean. In spite of the diversity of cultures
situated around the central sea this influence engendered
a certain unity which runs through the whole.

The Neolithic industries of North Africa, in spite
of certain similarities, are not uniform. For example
the stone tools found in the Oran are not quite identical
with those of the oasis of Siwa and these in turn differ
to a certain extent from the industries of the Fayum
and Egypt. It seems that from the Capsian (= African
Aurignacian) was developed a Mesolithic culture with
pigmy tools similar to, if not identical with, the Tar-
denoisean of Europe. This in turn gave place to a true
 186 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

Neolithic with small polished stone axes and quantities
of little arrow heads. These latter are sometimes leaf-
shaped, vaguely recalling in shape Solutrean laurel
leaves, sometimes tanged and winged. Now and then
small, extremely beautifully made examples are found
with their edges denticulated. Pottery was manufactured
and was in full use. Exact correlations between these
several industries and sub-division into successive
cultures have not yet with certainty been determined.

The most important area from the prehistorian’s
point of view is naturally Egypt(i). The earliest known
cultures have been found at Badari (Upper Egypt)1
and in the Fayum. The latter is probably rather the
earlier, though the industries show many common forms.
Rough pottery, polished axes, hoes, sickles, knives, and
a few bone tools occur in middens, and granaries, con-
sisting of large buried straw baskets, have also been
found. The Fayum lake then stood about 200 feet higher
than it does to-day, and the Neolithic families lived at
the edge. In spite of the time gap, the life of these people
must have been not unlike that of the modern desert
dweller of the region. At Badari skeletons have been
found, but the type seems quite ordinary and slightly
negroid.

There follows a succession of industries not easily
classed into a “cut and dried” sequence, but the
Neolithic Egyptian was certainly a past master in
the flaking of flint by a chipping and pressure tech-
nique. Late in Neolithic times graves were made

1 This industry has been claimed to be Solutrean in culture by no
less an authority than Professor Flinders Petrie, but his evidence is,
to say the least, extremely slender. The occurrence of a quantity of
pottery, not to speak of the stone industries themselves, would seem to
argue definitely that the culture is Neolithic.
 THE COPPER AGE

187

just beyond the cultivated land on the edge of the
desert, of which the best known are those of Nakadah,
a site some miles to the north of Thebes. The graves
often contain a rich funeral furniture and so are
of the greatest assistance in obtaining a chronological
picture of the life and ideas of these early folk. The
body was wrapped in a reed cloth and placed in a
wicker box or under an earthenware pot to protect it
from being crushed. A flexed position, with the hands
up near the face, is usual. The funeral furniture in-
cludes pots, the earliest being made of a red polished
ware, the tops left black by regulated firing. All sorts
of shapes are found, including vases, saucers, etc. Later
appears a buff ware, decorated with figures of humans,
animals, boats and geometric patterns, including the
spiral executed in red paint. Objects of ivory, wood,
gold, silver and copper, as well as necklaces of crystal,
etc., are found in the graves. Other interesting objects
are the so-called palettes made of slate and often cut into
the shapes of animal silhouettes; these were perhaps
used when tattooing and painting their eyelids. There
seem to have been close relations with neighbouring
peoples whose influences doubtless helped the rapid
progress in culture. Just before the creation of the
First Dynasty, when the country was united under one
leader, copper was introduced and bronze not long
afterwards. Soon after the coming of the Dynasties
calligraphy was developed and the story passes out of
our purview.

The island of Crete (2) where a maritime race grew
up which later had the whole of the sea commerce in
its hands is a very important locality. Thick Neo-
lithic deposits have been discovered underlying the
Bronze Age palaces at Knossos, and these have yielded
 l88 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

well-made pottery, including the well-known “ripple
ware,” first cousin to a very similar pottery found at
Badari. However these Neolithic finds at Knossos do
not seem to be very early and are probably later in date
than the Badarian discoveries. Cretan Neolithic vases
with handles and spouts occur; also steatopygous female
figurines of baked clay, these latter connect the culture
ofthe island with the worship of the Great Earth Mother,
so widely extended throughout Asia Minor and the
Near East generally in very early times1. On the north
coast of Crete, not far from the modern town of Hera-
kleion, an industry with rough quartzite picks and
obsidian flakes and tools (the obsidian probably im-
ported from Melos as it is not found on the island) has
been discovered.

The Neolithic industries are succeeded by a rich
series of Copper Age or earliest Bronze Age industries
called Early Minoan. These are sub-divisible into
three periods. In the pottery—sometimes painted with
simple geometric patterns—we find various and often
grotesque shapes. Long spouts, imitating a bird’s beak,
the eyes being also in many cases indicated, are of
common occurrence. The potter’s wheel does not occur
till the succeeding full Bronze Age cultures. In the
Peloponnese Neolithic pottery has been found near
Corinth, smooth, hand-made, and of a greyish colour,
apparently undecorated. In some ways the mainland
of Greece was less important than the Cycladic Islands,
for these latter had rich natural material to export. Thus
we find a Parian marble bowl in a First Dynastic tomb
in Egypt, while South Russia and Bulgaria, as well as
other far distant lands, have yielded objects made from

1 In this connection the discovery of female figurines in baked clay
from very early deposits at Anau III should be noted.
 THE COPPER AGE

189

materials only found in the islands. Melos supplied
obsidian, Paros marble, Naxos emery, and copper ores
occurred both in Paros and Siphnos. But, curiously
enough, no very definite Neolithic cultures have been
found in the islands themselves. For example, the
emery supplied from Naxos to Pre-Dynastic Egypt
was apparently collected by prospectors without any
considerable habitation of the island even by traders.
A little later, at the dawn of the Bronze Age, however,
the islands were thickly populated, presumably partly
from Asia Minor, partly from Egypt. From now on-
ward the islands came more and more under the in-
fluence of the Cretan culture which dominated the
Aegean throughout the Bronze Age.

Mesopotamia is still in process of being excavated
and much further light on its earliest cultures will no
doubt be thrown in the course of the next few years.
The Sumerian people, whose origin is unknown, were
at one time considered to be the earliest folk in the land,
but now painted pottery and other industries of still
earlier date have been unearthed at Eridu and many
other sites(3). A glance at chapter 1x1 will show that on
a priori grounds we should expect to look to the south-
east, to the now desert wastes of Seistan, for a cradle
for the cultures that later sprang into such great promi-
nence between the “rivers”; and in this connection it
is interesting to note that lately in the Panjab an industry
very similar to that of the Sumerian has been discovered.
Whether these two are to be directly connected, or
whether they both spring from a common intermediate
source is still unknown. We shall refer again to the
Sumerian and the cultures immediately succeeding it in
the chapter on the Bronze Age, for in this region writing
was early invented, and documentary evidence enables
 X90 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

us to visualise to some extent what life in the Bronze
Age must have been like in these regions.

An important trade centre grew up near the coast of
Asia Minor; this was Troy, or Hissarlik as it is often
calledu). Many cities, one on top of another, have been
unearthed, the sixth from the bottom being the well-
known city of Homeric fame. The earliest town, though
simple in construction, had stone foundations. A black
pottery (the paste being mixed with charcoal), slipped
and polished, occurs, occasionally decorated in a simple
linear design with white paint. The common form is a
bowl of globular shape with eyed lugs for suspension.
These are not dissimilar to those found in Crete belong-
ing to the earliest Metal Ages, but there is also a high
footed bowl such as is found in Danubian II. Stone
celts and a few perforated axes occur, but no metal.
The fauna includes sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, and
apparently fishing was practised. In the next town,
Troy II, which was of considerably greater importance,
there were stout walls of stone, metres high, sur-
mounted by a brick rampart with, as in Mesopotamia,
false buttresses at intervals. The houses were of the
Megaron type with porch and central hearth; this
rather points to a northern influence. This second city
of Troy was twice destroyed and rebuilt and can thus
be regarded as having had three periods. In the oldest
a red pottery was still made by hand, but a little later
the wheel appears and also the use of the muffle furnace,
which enabled the potter to obtain a black pot by the
reduction of the metallic salts contained in the clay.
Gold and silver decorated objects occur, but in the latter
part of Troy II’s existence analysis shows that the
advantage of a standard bronze, containing io per cent,
tin, had been discovered and was in full use; we pass
 THE COPPER AGE

191

therefore into the Bronze Age. Troy II had a commerce
stretching far and wide, and we find connections as far
north as the Danube valley.

Following round the Mediterranean (5), we note that
South Italy and the island of Sicily yield industries in
many ways quite different from those of North Italy
and more strongly influenced by the cultures of the
eastern Mediterranean; Central and Upper Italy were
more connected with the northern European cultures.
In South Italy regular villages are found and the burials,
sometimes in caves, sometimes in oval trenches, are
found near by. The people were long-headed—doubt-
less survivals of some of the old Upper Capsian stock
transformed—and the fauna includes goats, sheep, cattle
and swine. The industries, which are not very inter-
esting, include polished stone celts, which are rare, and
rough picks made from local rock; the occurrence of
obsidian, however, shows that a sea commerce existed,
this material not being obtainable locally. Pottery
occurs, occasionally painted, but more generally decor-
ated by being impressed, before burning, with an en-
graved stamp, the incised pattern thus formed being
sometimes filled in with a white or, more rarely, red
material.

The island of Malta, with its satellite Gozo(6), is of
especial interest as a rich culture, starting in Late
Neolithic times and persisting during the Bronze Age,
was developed there. Elaborate temple buildings were
constructed, which on excavation have yielded much
pottery including figurines. On the stones of one of
these temples a spiral decoration is carved. What
appear to be trackways—probably of the same age—
have been noted running across the island; there is
clear proof that earth movement has depressed the
 192 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

eastern end of the region since they were in use, for in
low-lying districts portions of the trackways are to-day
under the sea.

Another locality where important cultures were
developed is Sardinia, a region rich in obsidian, copper
and silver. The earliest industry found there in some
respects closely resembles the Maltese, and has been
compared with the Early Minoan. Later appeared the
true Copper Age of the island when the industries
include flat copper celts and bell beakers and show
connections with Catalonia and western Europe. The
material examined has been largely collected from a
great necropolis of chamber graves called Anghelu
Ruju.

In Spain very rich Late Neolithic and Copper Age
cultures were developed(7), and these are not by any
means the same all over the peninsula. To the north,
of course, the folk of the Western Area culture supplied
a strong influence; but even southwards the industries
of the east and centre and west are by no means quite
the same.

[Prometheus]

The old transitional Tardenoisean culture, with the
addition of the trapeze and a knowledge of pottery,
long survived, and was replaced by an industry with
polished stone axes. That the folk of this time were
already wealthy is evidenced by the find of a gold
diadem in the cave of Los Murcielagos near Albunol
in the province of Granada. Two Copper Age periods
followed, each capable of sub-division locally and differ-
ing to a certain extent in various parts of the country.
The pottery was already well made and the stone
industries, including arrow heads and the like, show
very considerable skill. In the full Copper Age, or
second period, often named Palmella culture, we have
 THE COPPER AGE

193
 194 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

well-made pots engraved with figures of convention-
alised stags and human beings (Plate 25, nos. 1, 2, 3).
These correspond closely to the paintings in Spanish
Art Group III described in chapter x. The best-known
sites that have yielded this engraved pottery are Los
Millares and Las Carolinas just south of Madrid near
Ciempozuelos (Plate 25, no. 3).

The tombs of this period are of very considerable
importance (. Certain peculiar developments that occur
have already been described in chapter vi; there are
also artificial caves, as at Palmella itself, which have
been used as tombs. It is the southern part of the
peninsula with which we are now mostly concerned
and here influences from the eastern Mediterranean
made themselves felt. In the north the types and
developments of megalithic constructions are of the
normal Western Area variety and show clear connections
with France. Thanks to the explorations of Siret,
Obermaier, and a number of Spanish investigators, it
has been found possible to make out a sequence for the
megalithic monuments of the southern area, which
includes parts of South Portugal, as follows:

END OF TRUE NEOLITHIC AGE

At this time we find:

1.   Precursors of the true dolmens in the form of
rectangular boxes or circular enclosures. No lid, if
there ever was one, has survived. Little tumulus exists
over the construction.

2.   Simple chamber dolmens constructed of rough
flags of a quadrangular or polygonal shape.

In both types are found stone celts with massive
round shafts; ordinary Neolithic flint tools and some
pigmies; points, awls and chisels of bone; simple
 THE COPPER AGE

*95

pottery (cups and beakers) with a few circles or pointille
engraved on them. A few poorly made ornaments such
as bored teeth, shells or fragments of bone, etc., occur.

3.   Dolmens with small entrances and little covered
galleries, their contents being the same as before only
of better workmanship. Armlets made from Pectunculus
shell. The first appearance of a simple form of schist
idol.

EARLY COPPER AGE

1.   Large passage graves.

2.   Big roofed galleries (the latter often of trapezoid
shape), their contents being celts frequently made from
choice stone; flint arrow heads trimmed over their
whole surface, often with tangs and basal wings; large
fine dagger blades; pottery with rich linear decoration
—geometric pattern, wavy lines or spirals, etc.—the
first appearance of bell beakers; beads of callais; schist
idols; amulets of animal phalanges. In the south of the
peninsula copper now appears for the first time.

FULL COPPER AGE

(Two zones—one in the south; the other in the
north.) In the south or rather south-west zone we find:

1.   Cupola dolmens with or without entrance galleries
or interior annexes.

2.   Ordinary dolmens with entrances and covered
galleries.

At the beginning of this time the change in building
referred to in chapter vi appears. Formerly, as has been
said, the uprights of the chamber and gallery supported
the roof, but now the excavation method is employed.
Locally, however, the simple passage grave with the
old technique continues to exist.
 196 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

The contents of the dolmens are similar to those last
enumerated. Besides these we find well-made little
votive celts; fine daggers and blades of flint; arrow
heads, some with long tangs and tail-like basal wings,
either willow or reed shaped; bone beads and round-
eyed needles; tools and weapons of copper—flat axes
and blades; pottery of the Ciempozuelos type with bell-
beakers, the decoration purely geometric or figurative—
sun pictures, conventionalised animals, eye ornaments,
etc. (Plate 25, nos. 1-3). Painted vessels are rare. We
also find beads, etc., of gold, silver, copper, gilded lead,
ivory, amber, amethyst, turquoise, callais; armlets of
ivory or thin stone plates; palettes; ointment jars;
human-shaped flat idols of stone; schist idols, often with
rich engravings of rough representations of humans—
frequently painted; cone-shaped idols of alabaster, lime-
stone, etc.; idols made from phalange bones, often
richly painted or engraved.

In the north zone we find:

1.   Short passage graves.

2.   Kist-shaped chambers.

The contents are more or less similar to those of the
last list, the finely worked flint arrow heads, sometimes
tanged and with basal wings, sometimes leaf-shaped,
being specially numerous. There are fairly rich copper
finds; pottery slightly decorated with patterns of Ciem-
pozuelos type; bell beakers; beads of stone and mussel
shell; small ornaments of gold, silver, copper, amber.
Rare examples of trephining have been noted.

EARLY BRONZE AGE

In this we find small stone kists with covering lids.
The contents of the kists show a falling off in the flint
industry, but are rich in copper tools along with which
 THE COPPER AGE

197

bronze becomes more frequent. We find awls, chisels,
thin flat axes with curved edges, sword blades and
triangular daggers, rings and armlets. Also plain
matt pottery of the El Argar type, as well as square-
shaped bone beads and ornaments of gold, silver and
amber.

The finding of beakers in Spain at such a very early
date is naturally of first-class importance, and it is
believed that the peninsula was actually the cradle of
this mysterious and elusive people. Their subsequent
wanderings carried them and their pots over most of
Europe and as far east as Hungary. They spread north-
wards to Brittany and perhaps via the pass of Belfort
down the Rhine to our own country. They crossed to
Italy and probably attained Central Europe via the
Brenner Pass. Naturally some modifications in pot type,
etc., occur in different districts; thus the pots at Carnac
are not quite the same as those of England, and in
Bohemia (?) handled cups develop, these in turn being
distributed over an area far outside their original home.
The Beaker folk were round-headed and burials were
by inhumation.

Spain was doubtless very important to the progressive
eastern Mediterranean cultures from its having metal
ores, and it is surprising to note the failure of this
brilliant cradle of culture to develop further. The early
Bronze Age (El Argar) culture proved to be of some
importance and spread to Italy, but from that time
onwards Spain for long ceased to count. One is tempted
to wonder whether the hardy and by now skilful mariner
from Crete may not have penetrated even beyond Spain,
and whether we should not look to him as the cause of
the great developments that took place in South Brittany
in Early Metal Age times ? Although the cultures found
 198 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES AND

at Carnac point to a limited use of metal, there is no
reason to consider that the date is anything far anterior
to that of the Early Bronze Age in Crete; the occurrence
of tin ores in Brittany, not to speak of callais and other
products, might well tempt the Mediterranean merchant.
Much has been written by some authors of the influ-
ence of Phoenician traders in very early times; it may
be that further discoveries will substitute the word
Cretan for Phoenician in the prehistoric periods at the
dawn of the Metal Age in northern Europe.

Should the above really represent a true state of
affairs then the anomalous and splendid development of
culture in the south of Brittany—especially near Carnac
—becomes explicable, and as it would have owed its
origin to the Mediterranean influence this is the place
to give a brief description of it rather than when the
Neolithic of the Western Area was under review.
French prehistorians have long classed the finds at
Carnac as Late Neolithic, but metal has been found
and the Age is really Copper or Early Bronze. The
modern village of Carnac lies some two or three miles
from the sea in sight of the long peninsula of Quiberon.
The surrounding district is poor, from an agricultural
point of view, and there is but little depth of soil. But
what it lacks in fertility is made up in the interest of
its prehistoric remains, and the whole country-side must
have been a sacred area, being more than rich in men-
hirs, cromlechs, alignments, dolmens, and other com-
plicated megalithic tombs. To the eastward lies the
shallow Morbihan Sea full of islands, and there is direct
evidence of land submergence since “ Carnacian” times,
there being several menhirs and cromlechs that are now
no longer above high-water level. The menhirs are of
the usual kinds and are often of immense size. The
 THE COPPER AGE

199

alignments are world-famous and have been described
in chapter vi. It is interesting to note that the align-
ments at Carnac cross, without regard, over an earlier
burial marked by a menhir which is out of line with
the smaller menhirs forming the main alignment. Such
a definite sequence is important though naturally it
does not indicate that all single menhirs are necessarily
early. Cromlechs and dolmens are of the usual type and
much in the way of funeral furniture has been recovered
in spite of the fact that a large number of the monuments
had been long known and pillaged. Owing to the
scarcity of soil the artificial earth mounds previously
covering the tombs were of great importance to agri-
culturists. Simple and complicated passage graves occur
—the most famous being that of St Michel, near the
modern village of Carnac overlooking the alignments
of Menec, where there is a complicated series of cham-
bers and passages. Apparently a person of great im-
portance was buried here with perhaps his servants
and oxen. Some metal was also discovered therein.
Many of these megalithic buildings have rough carvings
on them. These include serpents—said to be drawn in
connection with polished celts, a conventional octo-
pus (?) looking in reality rather like a shield, so-
called waving corn, etc. In one instance, in a tomb at
Gavr’inis, an island in the Morbihan Sea, there is a
design closely resembling that on a tumulus grave at Sess
Kilgreen in Ireland. Probably Gavr’inis was actually
an Irish colony in Brittany. Among the natural pro-
ducts of South Brittany is a very fine bluish-green
serpentine rock and finely polished celts of a very late
type are found far and wide made from this material;
which seems to have been a favourite article of commerce,
though not rivalling the well-known honey-coloured
 200 MEDITERRANEAN CULTURES

flint of Grand Pressigny. Two such celts have been
found for example near Cambridge.

But it was not only through Spain that the progressive
cultures of the eastern Mediterranean reached northern
Europe. Direct intercourse between Cyprus and Troy on
the one hand and Hungary on the other is proved by the
finding of southern types of tools in the north. This
commerce seems further to have introduced the copper
worker of Hungary to the tin producer of Bohemia,
and the result was naturally fertile in progress. The
bell beaker folk added their quota and there arose in
these lands the so-called Marschwitz culture with its
handled cups, etc. that just preceded the true Bronze
Age. Flat graves containing contracted bodies occur
and the funeral furniture includes eastern types of
battle axes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   E. A. W. Budge. Egypt. (Home University Series.)

(2)   H. R. Hall. * Aegean Archaeology. 1914.

(3)   H. R. Hall. “The Excavations of 1919....” Man, 1925,1. See

also V. G. Childe, The Most Ancient East. 1928.

(4)   Dorpfeld. Troja uni Ilios. 1902.

(5)   See bibliography (1) at end of chapter v.

(6)   M. A. Murray. Excavations in Malta. 1923. Miss Murray

gives a number of plates illustrating her finds and the whore
forms a convenient volume. Most of the excavation in Malta,
however, and its subsequent publication is due to the labours of
Professor T. Zammit.

(7)   N. Aberg. La Civilisation LUniolithique dans la Pininsule Ibirique.

1921.

(   H. Obermaier. “Die Dolmen Spaniens.” Mitt.d. Anth.Gesellsck.

in Wien, Band l, 1920.
 CHAPTER IX

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE
BRONZE AGE CULTURES

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. True bronze
contains io per cent, of the latter metal and is a
harder and tougher material than copper itself and
therefore more useful for the purpose of tool and
weapon making.

No hard and fast line can be drawn between the
Copper and Bronze cultures of Europe; the alloy was
not introduced by invading warriors from outside, but
appears as an autochthonous development. That copper
could be hardened by the addition of other metals—
tin, antimony, etc.—had already been discovered in the
Copper Age and apparently many experiments were
tried before standard bronze was evolved. Cultural
developments were not uniform all over Europe and
it is near tin producing areas—tin ores are rarer than
those of copper—that the earliest true Bronze Age
industries develop. As formerly, however, the eastern
Mediterranean area was the most progressive and the
use of bronze started earlier there than in northern
Europe, the necessary tin being obtained through an
extensive commerce, which incidentally introduced
many objects from the Aegean into the northern lands
and helped to forward the new culture there.

The Bronze Age can be divided into four periods,
the earliest being called Bronze I and the latest Bronze
IV. In some districts, e.g. East Anglia, only two periods
can be clearly demonstrated; the sharp dividing line is
always between Bronze IV and the earlier periods co.
The periods are demonstrated partly on stratigraphical,
 202   PRELIMINARY NOTES ON

but largely on typological grounds, the evolution of
various tools being determined. An outline study of
the development of some of the more important im-
plements1 * will therefore be necessary before proceeding
further, stress naturally being laid on types belonging
to the earlier periods, as Bronze IY is really outside
the purview of this bookco.

CELTS

One of the commonest tool families is that of the
Celt. It commences in the Copper Age and its evolu-
tion can be seen by reference to Plate 26, nos. 1—9.
At first the shape is that of a simple chisel—usually
made of copper—and the tool is clearly derived from
the stone celt. Next side ridges appear, doubtless to
keep the tool in place when hafted, and in this connec-
tion there also grows a transverse ridge, called a stop
ridge, which prevents the haft being pushed down too
far. Thus there develops the so-called “Palstave”3 * * * * *
(Plate 26, no. 5). But side by side with this there was
evolved the winged type, where the side ridges increase
to such an extent that they bend over and. meet. At
first the wings appear at the middle of the celt, later at
the butt end (Plate 26, nos. 6 and 7). The winged
type is a continental development and from it the

1 Chance finds of bronze tools occur, especially near such places as

convenient fords where trackways converged. Implements are found
too in burials and also form hoards—these being formerly the “capital’9

of an individual or the stock in trade of a merchant. The so-called

Wilburton hoard—preserved to-day in the Cambridge Museum of

Archaeology and Ethnology—may be taken as an example. Apparently

it was being transported across a mere when the boat capsized: the tools

were preserved in the peat below.

% Side rings for attachment purposes are often found in several

types of celt.
 

[Prometheus]

Plate 26* Examples illustrating tlie principal types of Bronze Age tools. 1-9 show the evolution

of the celt during the Bronze Age.

O

THE BRONZE AGE CULTURES
 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON

204

socketed celt was derived by the complete closing of
the wings and suppression of the central septum. Some-
times an idea of the wings persists as an art motif
engraved round the socket (Plate 2 6, no. . The
socketed celt only occurs in Bronze IV, a statement
applicable to most of the socketed types of tools which
are seldom found earlier than the end of the Bronze III
period. The evolution of the celt can be tabulated as
follows:

x. Flat celts ............

2.   Slightly raised edges ...

3.   Stop ridges ...........

4.   Much raised edges

$. Palstaves .............

6.   (a) Wings at middle of celt
(l) Wings at butt end of celt

7.   Socketed celts:

(a) Round socket hole ............. Bronze IV

(&) Square or oblong socket hole ... Bronze IV



Bronze II
Bronze II
Bronze III

Bronze III and Early IV
Bronze III

Bronze III and Early IV

DAGGERS

Only in period Bronze I and II are the types of
daggers at all distinctive. There are three varieties as
follows: (a) Triangular shaped with a large base, the
blade being flat or ridged centrally on both faces to
ensure strength. There are rivet holes for attachment
to hafts but neither tongue nor tang, except very rudi-
mentarily (Plate 26, no. 19). This variety is found in
Copper Age industries and during Bronze I and II
periods. (b) Similar to (a) but with a distinct tongue
(Plate 26, no. 20). This variety is found too in the
same industries. (c) Slender and with a long tang,
which, especially in the eastern Mediterranean area,
is often turned over at the end. There is a central ridge
to ensure strength to the long narrow blade (Plate 26,
 THE BRONZE AGE CULTURES 20_$

no. 18). This variety is called Cypriote and it occurs at
the end of the Bronze I period1.

RAPIERS AND SWORDS

There are many varieties of these, two of which are
derived from dagger prototypes, i.e. from the triangular
dagger (Plate 26, nos. n and 12); and the Cypriote
dagger (Plate 26, nos. 10 and 13). A third variety has
no dagger prototype, but the blades are leaf-shaped
and the handles are varied and complicated (Plate 26,
nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 22). The first two varieties are
mostly to b e dated to Bronze 11 or 111 periods, occasionally
to the end of Bronze I while the third is typical of the
Bronze IV period.

LANCES

Of these there are two varieties. The one called the
Amorgos lance has a flat blade with tongue and methods
for attachment to a haft, and occurs at the end of the
Bronze I and during the Bronze II periods (Plate 26,
no. 23; I2a shows ditto hafted). The other is a socketed
variety, there being several means of firmly affixing a
haft which gave rise to numerous different types. The
socketed lance does appear very occasionally as early
as the end of Bronze II, but is rare before the end of
Bronze III and Bronze IV periods (Plate 26, no. 24).

ARROW HEADS

Although bronze arrow heads occur, flint continued
to be used in most districts for arrow head making till
the Bronze IV period and it is not easy to say whether
any given arrow head, found on the surface without

1 Several specimens were found in the second city of Troy which
can be correlated with the last phases of the Early Minoan culture in
Crete.
 206 preliminary notes on

datable associated objects, is of Neolithic or Bronze
Age. As a rule the later examples are better made and
it has been suggested that the basal wings are more
parallel, whereas in the case of Neolithic examples they
tend to be divergent.

PINS

Types of pins vary considerably during the Bronze
Age and some of them are also especially characteristic
of certain areas. Thus the examples figured on Plate
26, nos. 27 and 28, belong to the Aunjetitz culture,
which is the earliest Bronze culture in the north and is
especially centred in the districts now known as Bohemia.
In France pins are rare before the Late Bronze Age.

There are many other kinds of Bronze articles, such
as gouges (Plate 26, no. 25), knives, sickles (Plate 26,
no. 26), bracelets (Plate 26, no. 29), buttons, armour,
harness and the like. But these are perhaps of less
importance for our purpose and those desiring a detailed
.study of them must consult works specially devoted to
the Bronze Age. Sandstone moulds for making all the
foregoing tools have been found.

POTTERY

There is considerable variety in the pottery, both in
the shapes and decorations; also many modifications in
different localities. In England three important types,
usually associated with burials, can be noted(3): (a) the
“cinerary urn" (Plate 26, no. 30), (b) the “food vessel”
(Plate 26, no. 31), and (c) the “incense cup” (Plate 26,
no. 32).

TRADE ROUTES

Although districts bordering the eastern Mediter-
ranean were far more progressive than regions further
 THE BRONZE AGE CULTURES 207

north, trade routes sprang up in Early Bronze times
and an interchange of culture developed. The chief
article of commerce seems to have been amber, the
Baltic variety being especially prized by the dwellers
in the south. The trade routes followed as far as pos-
sible river valleys and spread from Jutland up the valley
of the Elbe and thence through Bohemia and along
the Moldau over to the valley of the Inn. Italy was
reached by the Brenner Pass, which being under 5000
feet in height was already open in Copper Age times (4).
There was a second main route from the eastern Baltic
to Italy via Styria, but it was only opened in Early Iron
Age, i.e. Hallstatt times. The trade routes and their
use by folk of the various periods is demonstrated by
observing industries of a given period, restricted to
narrow belts following the courses of suitable rivers
and converging on possible passes.

HABITATIONS

Two kinds of Bronze Age village are known—lake
dwellings and land habitations. The former were
exactly like the Neolithic prototypes, except that'they
were usually built further out in the lakes. The latter
were ordinary primitive villages with narrow streets
often surrounded with a well-built mortarless wall.
A variety is however known where the villages were
built on piles over dry land. They are known as Terre-
mare settlements (s).

BURIALS

It is often said that cremation first appeared with
the Bronze Age cultures. This is not strictly true for
cremation has been observed occurring sporadically as
early as Neolithic times. However in the Bronze IV
 208

PRELIMINARY NOTES ON

period cremation becomes the usual mode for disposal
of the dead, the ashes being either placed in a pot and
buried under a round tumulus or collected into a small
scooped out hollow in the ground under the mound.
Many causes may have led to the rise of cremation.
Probably practical reasons underlay its use at first—
elimination of infection in cases of epidemics among
a by now numerous population, etc.; later doubtless
religion became involved in the custom and a ritual
interpretation was evolved. Frequently a necropolis is
formed by the grouping together of Bronze Age
tumulus graves and such a necropolis is of especial im-
portance to the student as the graves generally contain
a rich funeral furniture. Three of these grave fields are
to be noted in connection with the study of the earlier
periods. The one is at Aunjetitz in Bohemia^) and has
given much information about the earliest Bronze Age
north of the Alps, the others at Remedello and Fonta-
nella (Brescia) lie south of the mountains in North
Italyo).

AEGEAN AREA

As before, the most brilliant cultures were developed
in the Mediterranean area and those of the island of
Crete are in some ways to us the most startling(. Here
have been dug up not only whole Bronze Age towns
with their narrow paved streets just wide enough for a
pack-horse and clearly not meant for wheeled traffic,
for regular steps were formed where the road became
too steep, but also great palaces once occupied by
wealthy king-priests. These palaces are not only richly
decorated with frescoes and the like, but have yielded
wonderful coloured faience figures and other objects
from their magazines and treasuries. Nor is it only from
 THE BRONZE AGE CULTURES 209

the point of view of beauty and decoration that we are
astonished, for we even find baths and a completely
furnished drainage system. One of the things that
struck the writer most when he visited Knossos was a
flight of steps at the back of the palace leading down
towards the river. The steps turned at the bottom, and
by their side ran a gutter to carry water into a settling
tank whence it was conveyed into a cistern, fresh water
being a valuable commodity. The gutter, if it had run
straight down and then turned at right angles would
have been useless and the water would have flooded
over the steps and been lost. The gutter was therefore
shaped into a series of parabolic curves, so that there
was no rush of water and it flowed quietly into the
settling tank.

The Bronze cultures of the island are called Minoan
and have been divided by Sir Arthur Evans into three
periods, each period being in turn sub-divided into
three. We thus speak of an Early Minoan 1, 2, 3,
Middle Minoan 1, 2, 3, and a Late Minoan 1, 2, 31.
The pottery shows influences both from Egypt and
Asia Minor. It was often extremely beautifully made
and decorated, generally speaking the fashion being
dark paint on a light ground in the Early Minoan,
light on dark in the Middle Minoan, and again dark
on light in the Late Minoan times.

In the Late Bronze Age or Late Minoan times the
culture spread to the mainland of Greece and there gave
rise to the splendid Mycenean culture, described, at a
much later date, by Homer. But Greece had its own
Bronze Age cultures long before this Cretan invasion;

1 A comparative dating of Cretan with Egyptian cultures is obtained
by the finding of datable Egyptian objects in the various Cretan in-
dustries and vice versa.

B


 210   PRELIMINARY NOTES ON

they are called Helladic(<>). At first only a simple hand-
made, yellow-coloured, generally undecorated pottery
was manufactured, but in Middle Helladic times a
matt-painting technique developed, and this coincides
with the appearance of a bluish-coloured, undecorated
ware with a soapy feel called Minyan; it perhaps indi-
cates connections with Asia Minor. That Asia Minor
played a part in the development of Bronze Age culture
in Greece is further shown by the finding in an early
chamber tomb at Mycenae of a seal engraved with
symbols clearly from Asia Minor. The Middle Helladic
culture was swept away with the coming of the Cretans.

If a European of 150 years ago could have been intro-
duced into the Bronze Age world—especially into the
Aegean regions—he would probably soon have been able
to adapt himself to the prevailing conditions of life. Even
in the north he would not lack for such a small matter as
clothes. A sort of woven dressing-gown-like garment
has actually been recovered in Denmark perfectly pre-
served in the peat. In Egypt and Mesopotamia docu-
mentary evidence early helps us to fill in the life picture.
Mesopotamia(io) especially is proving of interest for,
unlike Egypt, it was never a naturally isolated area.
Of the earliest Mesopotamians we know little, except
that a well-burnt painted ware was manufactured. But
with the arrival of the Sumerians, writing on clay tablets
commenced. These people were cradled to the east-
wards—possibly in the then more fertile, but to-day
desert, regions of Seistan and Baluchistan1. They were
a bureaucratic, business-like folk living in city kingdoms.
They had powers of organisation as is shown by the
temple records. The temple was the centre of the city,

1 A nearly related culture—possibly derived from the same centre
—has lately been found in the north of India.
 THE BRONZE AGE CULTURES 211

being both church and government offices while the
king was also the chief priest. Fusion of the Sumerians
with a Semitic people lying to the north introduced a
new outlook on life and to this period must be dated
the growth of legends about the creation of the world,
a great flood, etc.—legends which at a later date were
drawn upon by the Jewish priesthood after the “Cap-
tivity” for the writing of their more spiritualised
account of the origin and early history of humanity.

Railways, motor cars and wireless were not yet in-
vented, but in many ways it was all very modern. Man
had indeed not yet harnessed nature and forced her to
do his work for him—doubtless therefore unemploy-
ment was less rife!—but, though primitive, life was
essentially modem in organisation. The domain of the
prehistorian is over.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(x) C. Fox. The Archaeology of the Cambridge Region. 1923.

(2)   J. D£chelette. Manuel d* Archiologie— Tome n, 19105 and

H. Peake. The Bronze Age and the Celtic World. 1922.

(3)   See bibliography (18) at end of chapter vii.

(4)   J. M. de Navarro. 64Prehistoric Routes between Northern Europe

and Italy defined by the Amber Trade.” Geographical Journal,
December 1925.

(5)   T. E. Peet. The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy^ 1909.

(6)   J. Schranil. Studie 0 vzniku cultury bronzovi v Cechdch. (French

resume.) Prague, 1921.

(7)   See Bullettino di PaletnologiaItaliana, x and xxiv. AlsoT. E. Peet,

ibid.

(   See bibliography (2) at the end of chapter vni.

(9)   C. W. Blegen. “Korakou,” American School of Classical Studies

at Athens. 1921.

(10)   H. R. Hall. The Ancient History of the Near East. 5th ed. 1920.
J. H. Breasted. Ancient Times.... 1916.
 CHAPTER X

ART

study of the art of a people is always of particular

interest whether the art is intended for utilitarian
purposes, as was the case with Upper Palaeolithic man,
or whether we are dealing with art for art’s sake, as
seems to have been the case in later prehistoric times.
A great deal of the archaeologist’s work consists of
excavating the dust bins of the prehistoric folk, and we
are apt to think only in terms of the kitchen. Art
introduces us to some of the higher emotions of the
people and gives us a glimpse at their thoughts and
feelings. Art decoration is incidentally extremely im-
portant to the prehistorian when tracing out connections
of cultures and movements of peoples. Art technique
and designs are as a rule far more specialised than any
tool—even more specialised than the form of a pot or
its handle. The occurrence of two objects similar in
design and decoration in widely separated areas proves
a connection between the areas, either racially or com-
mercially.

But little in the way of Mesolithic art existed or has
survived to-day. That of Azilian culture as well as
that from the Maglemosean and Kitchen Midden sites
has already been noted. So far noTardenoisean or Asturian
art has been recognised. An art-group of rock engravings
(Plate 28, Fig. 2) is, however, known, occurring in sites
along the coast of Norway as far north as Narvik, but
only spreading eastwards into Sweden at one place near

MESOLITHIC ART
 ART

213

Trondhjem where passage of the hills is practicable
and easy 00. The date of this group of rock engravings
appears to be the full Neolithic Age, for at one site at
Bar dal, near Trondhjem, examples are found engraved
on rocks that, according to Scandinavian geologists,
form a terrace that was below sea level until Passage
Grave times. Again, at the same site engravings
belonging to this group are found underneath other
engravings belonging to a much later art-group of the
full Bronze Age, thousands of examples of which are
found further south in Bohuslain, just north of Gothen-
burg. Although the Norwegian group cannot be earlier
in time than the Passage Grave Period, yet the fact that
the figures are often drawn in a naturalistic, or at any
rate semi-naturalistic manner, suggests that they were
made by folk belonging to the Arctic culture which,
it will be remembered, was probably derived directly
from the Maglemosean culture of Mesolithic times,
but which survived and continued to develop on its
own lines in areas not occupied by the Neolithic civil-
isation that took its place around the shores of the
Baltic.

The Norwegian group of drawings includes both
engravings and paintings, although the former are by
far the most numerous. The engraved figures are
generally found carved on extraordinarily hard glacier-
worn rocks which turn the blade of a knife to-day;
presumably the engravings were elaborately pecked
out with a pointed stone chisel. The animals figured
include a beautifully drawn reindeer at Bola and others
at Bogge, at the end of the Langfjord and elsewhere.
An engraving of a fish occurs at another site further
north. The animals are often poorly drawn, but this is
not to be wondered at considering how extraordinarily
 ART

214

[Prometheus]

refractory the hard rock is. Sometimes only two legs
are figured, sometimes four, but even in the latter case
there is no attempt at perspective. Often a peculiar
method is employed and the lines representing the legs
are produced till they meet the line of the back. Only
one or two instances of painting are known, which is
not surprising as paint cannot sink into these hard rock
surfaces and is therefore liable to suffer damage from
weathering action, although, on the other hand, it is
saved from the dangers which attend the disintegration
of rock surfaces due to the action of lichens and
other rock-growing plants. A goo d example of paintings
of this group can be seen in a small rock shelter which
is situated almost opposite where the road coming over
from the head of Langford meets the Sundalsfjord.
The paintings are in red and represent reindeer, etc.,
but are not very well drawn. Further north at a site
called Leka some little conventionalised human figures,
also painted in red, have been observed.

Attempts have been made to connect this art with
that of the Laplanders, but though perhaps it is not fair
to compare art techniques when used on such differ-
ent surfaces as rock and bone, it can safely be said that
the Lap technique, as seen in the engravings on pieces
of bone, etc., has little in common with that of the
Norwegian group that we have been describing.

No similar finds elsewhere have been recorded and
it would seem likely that we are dealing with an isolated
manifestation of art made by folk belonging to the
Arctic culture; why and for what purpose they were made
is completely unknown. At a later time Bronze Age
folk inhabited the district, at any rate around Trond-
hjem, and at Bardal the art of these new people is found
superimposed on examples of the older group. Probably
 ART

2'5

the Arctic culture people became extinct or were ab-
sorbed by the new comers, unless it should prove that
some distant connection between them and the Laps of
to-day can be clearly determined.

NEOLITHIC AND EARLIEST METAL AGE ART

Two groups can be distinguished in the Neolithic
and Copper Age art: the first comprises decorated
objects, such as pots or tools, etc., and the second
drawings on rocks or in rock shelters which are, how-
ever, of rare occurrence. The first of these groups has
been largely discussed in chapter iv, and it is only
necessary here to remind readers of the extremely fine
and well-drawn patterns on the beautifully made pots
of Early Neolithic date in the Eastern Area, or, again,
of the elaborate decoration on the collar flasks of
Scandinavia, not to speak of the complicated and ex-
tremely decorative motifs found at the end of Neolithic
times for them to realise that Neolithic man was not
in the least devoid of artistic sense. Prehistorians are
rather apt, after studying the wonderful cave art of
Upper Palaeolithic man, to underrate the powers and
the artistic appreciation of his Neolithic successor, but
this is largely due to the fact that the Neolithic decora-
tion of pots consisted exclusively, or almost exclusively,
of finely drawn geometric patterns. Naturalistic draw-
ings of animals were not employed as motifs, as on the
rounded surface of a pot they would not only have been
exceedingly difficult to execute, but also not particularly
adaptable. In the Mediterranean area, at that time
always far in advance of northern Europe in culture,
it was not till Late Minoan (Bronze) times that plants
and other natural objects were employed as motifs for
decoration.
 ART

2l6

One or two chipped pieces of rock marked with
rough geometric patterns have been found at the stone
factory site at Penmaenmawr in North Wales. That
Neolithic man was not incapable of drawing a natural-
istic figure of an animal when he wanted, can be seen
in the drawing of a fish on a cork float (a) found by the
Lake of Lucerne, figured in Plate 25, no. 4; and a fish,
though very poorly executed,can be recognised engraved
on a polished piece of greenstone now in the Museum
at Carnac, Brittany (Plate 25, no. 5).

Neolithic man was also capable of painting his pots
before firing so that the paint cannot be removed by
friction or washing. Although this painting decoration,
as far as Europe is concerned, is only found in certain
circumscribed localities at the very end of Neolithic or
rather at the dawn of the Copper Age, it was probably
practised in the very earliest times, for we find painted
pottery in the earliest levels at Anau in Russian Turkes-
tan, and Neolithic painted pottery has been described
from the loess in China. Although the folk who made
the wonderful painted pots found in the bottom layers
at Susa(3), as well as the people of Abu Shahrein
(=Eridu, Mesopotamia) ana other places who have
left us examples of their workmanship, probably of
Pre-Sumerian times (4), knew about the use of metal, it
must be remembered that in these areas by the great
rivers Euphrates and Tigris the use of metal dates back
to extremely early times, far earlier than was the case
in northern Europe; and, on the other hand, little is
known as to an earlier true Neolithic stage of culture
in these regions. In Moravia, at the end of Neolithic
times, a painted pottery was developed, but in this case
the paint was not fired with the pot and can be removed
by friction. The oft mentioned pottery figurines of
 ART

217

humans and animals are naturally of great importance
(Plates 20, 21 and 29, no. 5). Bronze Age pottery
continued to be decorated with incised geometric
patterns and painting developed to a high degree in the
Aegean area. Even metal tools are sometimes found
decorated with zigzag or lozenge patterns.

ROCK SHELTER ART

An extremely interesting art-group that occurs in
rock shelters belonging to the Late Neolithic and
Copper Age periods has been studied in the Spanish
Peninsula(s). Although it occurs sporadically over a
great part of South Spain where natural rock shelters
in limestone or sandstone occur and conditions are
favourable, it can be more or less grouped into distinct
areas. The first of these areas is in the extreme south-
west of Spain, and is the tract of country bounded by
the sea coast and an artificial line drawn from Malaga
to Seville and Cadiz. The examples are especially
numerous around the Laguna de la Janda where a few
years ago M. Breuil and the writer explored nearly
sixty sites. Another area is in Murcia and Almeria,
South-East Spain, with a focus at Velez Blanco, a little
village some sixty miles or so west of Murcia. Here
examples of this Copper Age art (often called Spanish
Art Group III) come in contact with a naturalistic group
( Spanish Art Group II) probably dating back to Quater-
nary times and contemporary with, though different in
technique from the well-known Upper Palaeolithic cave
paintings of France or Spain. It is interesting to note,
as a proof of the relative ages, that where examples of
these two groups, easily differentiated by their vastly
different techniques, are found in one and the same
rock shelter, if superposition occurs examples of Spanish
 2X8

ART

Art Group III are invariably painted over and are there-
fore younger than examples of Spanish Art Group II.
Painted rock shelters have been discovered in the Sierra
Morena, and in the chains of mountains that connect it
with the high land of South-East Portugal. An analogous
art has been found in some rock shelters in the well-
known valley of Las Batuecasm, mentioned by Borrow
in his Bible in Spain as being a mysterious and dreaded
place, though whether this was due to its lonely position
or to legends and traditions dating as far back as Copper
Age times when the paintings were being made, cannot
of course be determined. Las Batuecas lies to the south-
west of Salamanca. In North Spain few examples of
Copper Age paintings have been recognised, with the
exception of an anomalous find at Pena Tti, to be
described later.

This art-group, as a whole, is highly conventionalised
and especially noteworthy for the large number of
geometric patterns, including in one instance the spiral,
and the variety of conventionalisations of the human
form. Some of these are figured in Plate 30; they are
important as they help to show the connection between
the interesting Copper Age culture of the southern
Spanish Peninsula with that of regions elsewhere.
Besides conventionalised human beings, a number of
still more conventionalised animals can be recognised,
including stag, hind, ibex and carnivorous animals
whose species it is difficult to determine. At Las Figuras
near the Laguna de la Janda a large number of birds
are also figured, but, with the exception of one example
in a rock shelter in the Sierra Morena, they do not
appear in the drawings elsewhere. At the same site
is portrayed the figure of a man having in his hand what
seems from its shape to be a metal axe, but on the other
 ART

219

hand at Los Molinos, a site near Velez Blanco, there is
another example portraying equally clearly a stone axe,
and examples of this can be duplicated from Bacinete,
a site not far from Los Barrios in the region of Gibraltar.
At the rock shelter of Los Letreros (Velez Blanco)
a man is figured carrying a sickle in each hand. Judging
by their size, relative to the human figure, they would
seem to be wooden sickles hafted with flints, and not
metal sickles, which, owing to the value of the metal,
were always relatively very small in the Early Metal
Ages. That the folk who made these paintings practised
the domestication of animals is shown by a very charm-
ing example found at Las Canforras de Penarrubia in
the Sierra Morena of an animal being led by a halter.
In the district to the west of the Sierra Morena, lying
between it and Portugal, can be seen some very inter-
esting paintings of wheeled vehicles<7). The paintings
consist of two more or less converging lines with cross-
bars between them, and these converging lines, after
joining, are continued as one line indicating the central
shaft of the vehicle. Two or sometimes four wheels
are indicated by round circles placed just outside these
lines. It is as if the vehicle had been laid out flat, with
the wheels spread on the ground, and was viewed from
above. Exactly the same type of farm cart can be seen
used by the peasants in parts of Spain to-day. The
wheels depicted usually show four spokes, forming
two diameters of the circle at right angles; but in one
instance they are formed by one diameter to the wheel
and two chords at right angles to this diameter, thus
dividing the wheel into three sections (Plate 27, no. 3).
A somewhat similar type of spoking is still used to-day.
At Las Batuecas (Estramadurajw the art is not quite
analogous to that further south, and more than one
 220

ART

series of different ages can be determined by a study of
their superposition. The lowest is considerably more
naturalistic and it may be that this is earlier in date
than the art we have been discussing, being possibly
true Neolithic or even Azilian. Drawings of comb-
shaped figures can be matched with similar finds in
the south-west of Spain and are common in the latest
examples of art at La Pileta cave near Rhonda(s). The
anomalous example of Pena Tu already mentioned is
extremely important^). If the student alights at the
little station of Vidiago on the narrow gauge railway
from Santander to Llanes (Asturias), he will find, on
looking westward, that the sea shore is close by on his
right hand, while on his left the ground rises rapidly
forminga firstfoot-hill of the PicosdeEuropa massif. On
the top of this first ridge is a large and very visible
block of rock standing up rather like a small Dartmoor
tor. On one side it is heavily undercut by natural action,
and it is here that the paintings have been preserved.
They consist of innumerable red dots, a few very
poorly made animal figures, some simple conventional-
ised human forms, and a sword, evidently metal, deeply
engraved, with five rivet holes near the handle shown
in red; there is also a large coffin-shaped idol, partly
painted, partly also deeply engraved, this is best de-
scribed by reference to Plate 27, no. 1. Pena Tti is the
only site in this group where engraving has been em-
ployed in conjunction with painting, and it forms a link
with the punctuations, the poorly drawn animals and
the conventionalised human beings of the regular
Spanish Art Group III art on the one hand, and with the
carved and painted schist idols in the funeral furniture
of the megalithic tombs on the other. The presence of
the long triangular sword or dagger indicates an Early
 3

Plate 27. 1* Rock shelter art at Pena Tu (Spain). 2. Rock carving at Clonfinlough (Ireland),
3. Fainting of a wheeled cart from the Spanish Art Group III. 4, Rock carvings similar to 2
but from Galicia (Spain).

ART   221
 222

ART

Metal Age. In North-West Spain Dr Obermaier has
studied in the province of Galicia a series of rock
carvings(io). These are deeply cut on hard rocks and
can be divided into an older and newer series. Although
Dr Obermaier suggests a Bronze Age for both series
it may be possible to date the earlier as belonging to the
Copper Age culture. Figures of the human form con-
ventionalised as well as other geometric figures occur
and though not exactly similar would appear to have
relationships with Spanish Art Group III. The art
of the older series closely recalls that on the stone at
Clonfinlough (Athlone), Ireland. The newer series in
Galicia is far more developed than the older; it must
probably be referred to the full Bronze Age. Some
semi-naturalistic figures of animals are occasionally
found.

But Pena Til is not alone in supplying us with a clue
to the age of this art-group. Engravings on pots, with
figures of stag and human beings in exactly the same
technique as those painted on the rock shelters in South
Spain, have been found at Las Millares, at Velez
Blanco itself and at Ciempozuelos near Madrid (Plate
25, nos. 1, 2, 3) (ix), where these pots can be definitely
assigned to the full Copper Age of the Spanish Penin-
sula.

Why the Copper Age folk took such trouble in
decorating certain natural rock shelters, is difficult to
determine. That they were not “homes” is proved by
the fact that examples occur in rock shelters and situa-
tions where nobody could possibly have lived. Broadly
speaking, though not invariably, the more important
sites command a very extensive view and are often found
near springs of fresh water. In one case at Gabal near
Velez Blanco, where a rock shelter probably was used
 ART

2 23

as a home, the paintings are not in the rock shelter
itself, but in a niche above the doorway extremely
difficult to get at, and a somewhat similar state of
affairs is also known elsewhere. Possibly they were
not all drawn for the same purpose, and in some cases
they may have been a magic protection for the home, in
others the decoration of some very visible spot that for
various reasons had become a sacred sanctuary and
where perhaps religious observances took place.

Another very interesting group of rock drawings
occurs in the Maritime Alps not far from San Dalmazo («)
on the modern frontier between Italy and France. They
are found on the slopes of and near by Monte Bego,
which mountain and the Grand Capulet form two very
striking peaks visible from the railway between Nice and
Antibes. Col di Tenda, at the head of the Roja valley,
was probably used from the very earliest times by
people passing from the sea coast area of the district
around Ventimiglia to the plains of Piedmont behind.
Between Monte Bego and Grand Capulet lie the lakes
of “wonders,” and it is near these that many of the
engravings in question occur. The figures drawn in-
clude bulls with very exaggerated horns, other horned
animals, men, possibly villages, spirals, geometric
patterns, and weapons, such as small triangular daggers
with tongues, etc. (Plate 28, Fig. 1). Ploughing
scenes are also depicted, there being two, more rarely
four, oxen yoked, and sometimes one, sometimes two
men hold the other end of the plough. Their date
would seem to be some time at the beginning of the
Metal period; whether Bronze was known and in use
for tool-making is uncertain. The technique is a shallow
pecking out of the surface of the figure, probably with
a sharp stone chisel or pointed tool. But the peculiarity
 ART

224

of this so-called Fontanalba art-group is that all the
drawings are made as if seen from above; they are, as
it were, aeroplane pictures of what is going on down
below. Thus in the case of what seem to be drawings
of villages we just find the plan of a house with the open
court yard and the surrounding wall, but no elevation.
The makers of these drawings apparently watched what
was going on far below them and then just engraved
what they had seen. Why they should have done so is
a complete mystery. The plough scenes are of particular
interest, the only engravings at all analogous being a
plough scene, also with oxen, from the Bronze Age
Scandinavian group in Bohuslain (13), a district lying to
the north of Gothenburg (Sweden), where drawings of
ships, men, weapons and signs occur in the greatest
profusion and a ploughing scene and a cavalry battle
are also depicted. More than 500 sites, where these
drawings occur, have been discovered. They date to
the Bronze Age and, although the motive for their
creation is unknown, it is obvious when the hard nature
of the glacier-worn rock surfaces on which they are
carved is taken into account that a very considerable
amount of work was expended in their production. This
art-group had a fairly wide distribution in Scandinavia
and an “outlier” of it has been found in North Russia
on the eastern shore of Lake Onega(i4).

ART ON AND IN TOMBS
Not infrequently we find very rough drawings on
menhirs and other upright stones. These are mostly
geometric though sometimes what are probably meant
to be human beings, conventionalised into sort of cross-
shaped figures, and rough figures of animals, have
been noted. A good example is a small kist tomb near
 ART

Plate 28. Fig. 1. Rock carvings from the Maritime Alps of Early Metal Age.
9, Fig. 2. Rock carvings from Norway belonging probably to the
“Arctic” culture.

B'

*5
 ART

22 6

[Prometheus]

Gohlitsch (Saxony) (is) where the representation of an
axe as well as a complicated zigzag pattern is engraved
on each stone. Other engravings on dolmens have
been found in France and elsewhere. Some of the most
elaborate examples of this style of art are found near
Carnac in Brittany<i6) and comprise complicated figures
whose exact significance has not been determined, with
any certainty, although waving corn in some instances,
and the octopus in others, have been suggested. Repre-
sentations of serpents have been noted, and these have
been found in conjunction with polished stone axes.
But in one instance at any rate, at Gavr’inis, in Brittany,
the walls of a little passage grave have been covered
with concentric circles and spiral decoration (Plate 29,
no. 1), evidently showing connection with a different
art-group, probably of Early Metal Age, that had its
focus in Ireland.

The Irish examples, some apparently Late Neolithic,
others as late as the Bronze Age, are restricted to an
area bounded by imaginary lines drawn from Dublin,
through Monaghan to Sligo, and thence to Athlone
and back to Dublin (7). The most important stations
are the great tumulus at Dowth, that of New Grange
and a number of small tumuli on the Loughcrew hills
(Co. Meath). Another example of extreme interest, as
the decoration is very similar to that at Gavr’inis (Plate
29, no. 1) is found in a partially destroyed tumulus at
Sess Kilgreen (Co. Tyrone) (Plate 29, no. 2), as well as
on a single small standing stone near by. Again, the
chamber under a now destroyed tumulus occupying a
commanding position at the top of a hill, Knockmany
(Co. Tyrone) was decorated in a similar manner. Of
perhaps rather earlier date than the above monu-
ments and possibly of true, though very late, Irish
 Plate 29. Carvings on the side wall of a megalithic tomb at Gavr’inis (Brittany). 2. Carvings on the side
wall of a small tumulus at Sess Kilgreen (Ireland). 3. Conventionalised engravings on the Folk ton
chalk drum (reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum). 4. Pottery model
of a house of Neolithic Age, now in the Museum at Brno. 5. Pottery figure from Anau,

6-8. “Schist** and “Menhir” idols.

to

ART
 ART

228

Neolithic times—in all probability contemporary with
the Copper Age of the Spanish Peninsula—are the
engravings on the lid of a small dolmen, at Rathkenny
(Co. Meath), and others on the surface of a natural
slope of rock in the field behind the church at Clonfin-
lough (Kings Co.) (Plate 27, no. 2) not far from Athlone.
The engravings at this latter site, with their peculiarities
and conventionalisation, recall strongly similar conven-
tionalisations in the Spanish Art Group III already
described, and the stone at Clonfinlough is not at all
unlike the earlier series of rock engravings in Galicia
which have already been mentioned. The connection
with Spain is not to be wondered at, for right through
Early Metal Age times Ireland was of very great im-
portance on account of the gold found there. At a
rather later date the tumulus engravings developed,
and, as has been seen, spread as far as Brittany.

These are not all of the same age, and four distinct
methods of manufacture or technique have been noted:
first and earliest, plain incised lines; secondly, pocked
lines; thirdly, broad deep lines made by first pocking
and then polishing and smoothing; fourth and lastly,
figures pocked over the whole surface and not simply
outlined. Superposition has been observed; and (1)
and (2) are clearly older than the construction of the
great tumuli themselves: the engravings disappear into
the wall itself. In other words, the builders of the
tumuli utilised stones that had already, in some in-
stances, been engraved. It may also be observed that
in some cases figures are contracted so as to fit into
spaces where other and earlier techniques occur. This
shows (a) that the engravings of the other technique
are earlier, and (b) that the later people recognised and
respected them. The significance of the art, of course,
 ART

229

Plate 30. Examples of the paintings of the Spanish Art Group III. Note
the various conventionalisations of the human form.
 ART

230

is -unknown. The figures consist of spirals, lozenges,
zigzags, star-shaped, figures, circles, the famous boat-
shaped figure (New Grange), and possibly convention-
alised human faces (Knockmany). In one instance,
at Loughcrew, on a surface painted red a narrow zigzag
is left unpainted.

The connections of this group with those elsewhere
are not easy to determine, it is difficult to trace any
connection with the Bronze Age art of Bohuslain in
Scandinavia with its rock carvings of ships, men using
a plough drawn by bulls, and a cavalry battle scene.
Turning southward to Spain we may note cruciform
human figures on the left hand wall of the great passage
grave of Cueva Menga which may have been a later
addition, although the patina of the engravings is the
same as that of the rock around. There are some poor
paintings in red (18) in dolmens in the provinces of Beira
and Tras-os-Montes, the north of Portugal, as well as a
head stone in a little dolmen under the disused church
of Cangas d’Onis (19). In this latter the painting consists
of wavy bands of reddish colour.

One of the most interesting art manifestations in the
Spanish Peninsula is seen in the so-called schist idols
(Plate 29, nos. 6 and that represent the human form
in a very conventionalised manner, and are roughly
triangular in shape and covered with engravings (Plate
29, no. 6). These are found buried in dolmens both in
Spain and Portugal; they are very common, for example,
in the great tumulus field near Pavia, to the south-east
of Portugal(20). They, together with “idols” made
from phalange bones, etc., form a very interesting
series of objects which are doubtless of ritual significance,
and should in all probability be considered in connec-
tion with the terra-cotta human figures that occur at
 ART

23I

the end of Neolithic times, especially in the Eastern
Area, and appear to be connected with the general
worship of the great Earth Mother in the Near East.
In this connection may be mentioned the so-called
Menhir Idol (Plate 29, no. 7) of which several examples
have been found in France. The most characteristic
are those of Saint-Sernin, Arribats, and Pousthomy.
They represent a conventionalised human form, the
nose and eyes as well as the legs and arms being carved
in relief. A close relationship doubtless exists between
these carved grave stones and the small schist idols of
the dolmen funeral furniture and M. Pottier has also
discussed their relationship with Ethiopian megalith
monoliths (ai). It would seem probable that we are
dealing with influences from the eastern Mediter-
ranean. A find of three small solid chalk drums engraved
all over with geometrical designs and the human face
conventionalised (see Plate 29, no. 3) found in a barrow
at Folkton Wold (Yorkshire) is of especial interest^).
The barrow, which is 54 feet in diameter, covered a
chamber containing two adult skeletons and a beaker.
The drums were not found actually in the chamber
itself, but in a trench 22 feet away eastwards. They
date presumably to the Copper Age or perhaps Bronze
Age and should be compared with the Menhir Idols
just described.

BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES

(1)   G. HallstrSm. “Nordskandinaviska Hallristningar.” Fornvannen%

1907 and 1908.

---- “Hallristningar i norra Skandinavien.” Ymtr, 1907.

(2)   F. Sarasin. “Note sur une gravure pr&iistorique provenant des

tourbi&res de l’ancien lac de Wauwil (Lucerne).” Archiv.
Suisses d’Anti, ginirale, tome n, no. 3 (1917).
 ART

232

(3)   See bibliography (10) at end of chapter v.

(4.) See bibliography (3) at end of chapter vm.

(5)   M. C. Burkitt. Prehistory. 2nd ed. (1925), p. 290.

------“Spanish rock-shelter paintings of* Aeneolithic Age (Spanish

Group III).” Antiq. Journ. vol. iv, no. 2, 1924,

(6)   H. Breuil. “La vallde peinte des Batuecas.” UAnthropologic,

tome xxix, 19x8-19.

(7)   H. Breuil. “Le char et le trafneau dans Fart rupestre d’Estrd-

madure.” Terra Portuguese, nos. 15 and 16 (1917).

(   H. Breuil and H. Obermaier. La Pileta. Monaco, 1915.

(9)   E. H. Pacheco. “Las Pinturas prehistoricas de PeiSa Tii.” Mem.

comm, de invest. pal.y prehist. num. 2,1914.

(10)   H. Obermaier. “Die Bronzezeitlichen Felsgravierungen von

Nordwest-Spanien (Galicien).” I.P.E.K. Leipzig, 192;.
(n) H. Obermaier. “Yacimiento prehistorico de las Carolinas
(Madrid).” Mem. comm. de invest. pal. y prehist. num. 16,1917.

(12)   C. Bicknell. A Guide to the Prehistoric Rock Engravings in the

Italian Maritime Alps. Bordighera, 19x3.

(13)   L. Baltzer. Glyphes des Rochers du Bohnslan. Goteborg, 1881.

(14)   M. C. Burkitt. Prehistory. 2nd ed. Plates XLIII-XLVII.

(15)   A photograph of the engraved stones is reproduced on p. 115 m

vol. 11 of Human Origins, by G. G. MacCurdy, 1924.

(16)   Z. le Rouzic. Carnac, Menhirs-statues avec signes figuratifs et

amulettes on Holes des Dolmens du Morhihan. Nantes, 1913.
----Locmariaquer, la Table des Marchands. Nancy, 1910.

(17)   H. Breuil. “Les Pdtroglyphes dTrlande.” Rev. Arch, tome xm,

pp- 75-78 (1921)-

R. A. S. Macalister (with H. Breuil). “A study of the Chrono-
logy of Bronze-Age Sculptures in Ireland,” Pm. Roy. Irish
Acad. vol. xxxvi, sect, c (1921).

(r J. L. de Vasconcfxlos. “ Peintures dans des Dolmens de Portugal.”
UHomme prihistorique, February 1907.

(19)   Conde de la Vega del Sella. “El Dolmen de la capilla de

Santa Cruz (Asturias).” Mem. comm, de invest, pal. y prehist.
num. 22 (1919).

(20)   See bibliography (1) at end of chapter vi.

(21)   See VIllustration, 30 May, 1925.

(22)   See British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age.

2nd ed. p. 80*
 INDEX

Abbott, G. W., 173, 184
Abbott, W. J. L., 23, 183
Abercromby, J., 126,128,181,184
A berg, N., 154, 162, 200
Aberystwyth, pigmy industry at,
167

Aegean, see Mediterranean
Africa, Mesolithic industries in, 16,
18; sickle from, x 18; megaliths in,
151-2, 231; Neolithic industries
in, 185-7

Agriculture, Pre-Neolithic, 2, 4, 43 j
Neolithic, 50-6,118; in the Eastern
Area, 1315 in England, 179, 180
Aichbtthl, pottery from, 126, PL 18.

7-9j culture, 137
Alpera, rock shelter near, 18 n,
Alpine race, the, 99, 100
Alsace, and Danubian culture, 133
Amber, Baltic, r; figurines, 38,
Pl. 35 trade in, 84, 2075 in Spain,
196, 197

Amorgos lance, the, 205
Anau, domestication of animals at,
58, $3«.j excavations at, 84-65
pottery at, 85, 142, 143, 2165
population of, 99
Ancylus Lake, the, 29
Apples, Neolithic, 54
Archers, wrist-guards for, 137
Arctic culture, 154,1705 in Norway,
213, 215, PL 28. 2
Argali, ancestor of domesticated
sheep, 61, PI. 6
Armstrong, L., 183, 184
Arne, T. J., xoi
Arribats, “menhir idol** at, 231
Arrow heads, 195 transverse-edged,
40,42, 44,46,108, PL 5. b and PL
11. 125 at Anau, 86; Neolithic,
113-16, 120, 158, 159, 172, Pl.
14. 3, 1765 from Scotland, 182;
African, 1865 Spanish, 192, 195,
196; Bronze Age, 205-6

Art, and magic, 2, 6, 655 in Azilian
culture, 11-13, Z1Z > absent in
Tardenoisean culture, 20, 2125
in Maglemosean culture, 38, 212;
in Kitchen midden culture, 43;
and pottery, 64-5; at Anau, 86;
Neolithic, 95-6, 215-175 in Danu-
bian culture, 134,   143-4; at

Grimes Graves, 170, 174; of the
Spanish dolmens, 1965 in Brit-
tany, 199; in Crete, 208-95 Meso-
lithic, in Norway, 212-15, PL 28.
2; of Spanish rock shelters, 217,
PL 30; and tombs, 224-31, PI. 29
Asia, Central, and Neolithic civilisa-
tion, 58-62, 78-86, 131, 2io;
N orthern, 155; Minor, 18 9,190,21 o
Asturian culture, 10, 24-6; pick, 24,
Pl. 1. 2

“Atlantic” period, the, 76
Aunjetitz culture, 206, 208
Aurignacian culture, at Mentone,
19-20, 163; in Moravia, 39, 163;
in England, 163

Australia, pigmy flints in, 16, Pl. 2.2
Avebury, long barrow near, 175;

stone circle at, 177
Awls, Neolithic, 116, Pl. 10. 6
Axe, Campigny, 32, 40, 46, 47?
PL 5. c; shell mound, 44 n.$
Neolithic, 69, 70, 103, 190, 1925
hammer, 116, PL 13. 1, 132, 136,
143; battle, 118-19; PL 9. 5, 136,
138,   155-7, 180, 200; boat-

shaped, 118-19, Pl. 9. 6, PL 145
in art, 218-19, 226
Axpea, Tardenoisean burial at, 22.
Azilian culture, 10-14, 160; in
Britain, *64

Azilio-Tardenoisean man, 20
Azda, P. R. de, 49

Bacinete, axe figured at, 219
Badari, industry at, 186
 INDEX

234

Baden, and Danubian culture, 133
Ballymena, Antrim, implement from,
120, PL 14. 2

Baltic, the, and Maglemosean cul-
ture, 27-39, 154; celts from, 1045
culture of, 97, 124; amber, 207
Baltzer, L., 232

Bann, River, implements from, 172
Bardal, Norway, rock-engravings,
213, 214

Barley, Neolithic, 53,545 at Anau, 8$
Barrows, Long, see Passage Graves;

Round, see Kists, stone
Barton Mills, barrow, 182
Battle Axe Folk, 136, 138, 156-7;
in England, 180

Bavaria, Mesolithic culture in, 20;
Neolithic pottery in, 124; and
Danubian culture, 133, 134
Beads, shell, 22; cornelian, 85;
Egyptian, 187; Spanish, 196, 197.
See also Necklaces and Ornaments
Beaker Folk, the, habitations of, 89;
tools of, 112; culture of, 137-8,
200; in England, 180-35 in
Spain, 197

Beaker, pottery, 84, 126, PI. 19,
137; in England, 180-3; in
Spain, 195, 196, 197
Belgium, Azilian culture in, 13, 164;
Tardenoisean culture in, 14-15,
18-19, 21, 168; Neolithic sites in,
87-8; Neolithic implements from,
113, 1x4, PL 12. 3 and 125 and
Danubian culture, 134
Belloy-sur-Somme, industry at,
163 n.

Biarritz, Asturian culture at, 26
Bicknell, €., 232
Bienne, Lake, dug-out from, 94
Birds, in Spanish art, 218
Birseck, Azilian station at, 160
Bishop, A. H., 48

Blangy-sur-Bresle, Campignian site
at, 46-7

Blegen, C. W., 211
Bohemia, 197; tin from, 200;
Aunjetitz culture in, 206, 208

Bohuslain, rock-engravings at, 213,
224, 230

“Boreal” period, the, 76
Boulogne, Maglemosean culture
near, 27

Brandon, Suffolk, implements from,
116, PL 11. 8, 119, Pl. 10. 1,
Pl. 24. A

Breasted, J. H., 211
Brenner Pass, the, 84, 138, 197, 207
Breuil, H., 48, 217, 232
Brighton, pigmy industry near, 167
Britain, Azilian culture in, 10, 13;
Tardenoisean ^culture in, 18, 19,
23; Maglemosean finds in, 275
climatic changes in, 28, 77-8;
Campignian culture in, 47; Neo-
lithic culture in, 97, 173-83;
Beaker pottery in, 126, Pl. 19,
180-3. $ee ak° England
Brittany, culture of, 197-9; pre-
historic art in, 199, 228. See also
Carnac

Bronze, occurrence of, in Egypt,
187; at Troy, 1905 in Spain, 197;
composition of, 201
Bronze Age, influence of, in Thes-
saly, 140; in Egypt, 187; in the
Greek islands, 1895 in Malta, 191;
in Spain, 196-7; cultures, ch. IX;
art, 213, 224, 226, 231
Brooks, C. E. P., 101
Buckley, F., 48, 49, 168, 183
Budge, E. A. W., 200
Bukowina, painted pottery in the, 138
Bulgaria, earth-houses in, 90; and
the Greek islands, 188
Bullen, R. A., 183
Burials, 6; Azilio-Tardenoisean, 20-
3, 39; Kitchen midden, 43-4; at
Anau, 85; Neolithic, 96, 132-3,
136, 137, 145-53, i^ga~
lithic, i45~53?   i75”9?   *98-95

Battle Axe Folk, 181; Beaker
Folk, 182, 197; Egyptian, 186-7;
Italian, 191; Spanish, 194-75 2065
Bronze Age, 206, 207-8
Burin, Tardenoisean, 15, 19, 168
 INDEX

Burkitt, M. C., 7, 48, 232
Burnt Fen, Neolithic implements
from, 104, 113, 116, PL 8. 6,
Pl. 11. 7, 9

Burwell Fen, implements from, 104,
106, Pl. 8. 1, 3, Pl. 10. 7
Bushell, W. D., 184
Butmir, Bosnia, wheat from, 54;
figurines from, 86, 143; indus-
tries, 143-4, Pl* 21

Cabego d*Arruda, see Mughem
Caisteal-nan-Gillean, see Oronsay
Caithness, “painted pebbles”in, 12n.
Calkin, J. B., 183

Callais, from Brittany, 158, 1985
beads of, in Spain, 195, 196
Cambridge, implements from, 120,
200

Camel, at Anau, 86
Camp de Chassey, pottery from,
124; Neolithic village at, 159
Campignian culture, 10, 32, 45-75
axe, 32, 40, 46, PL 5. c
Cangas d’Onis, painting at, 230
Capitan, L., 40, 49
Capsian culture, 185
Carnac, megaliths at, 146, 148, 158;
pottery at, 1975 culture of, 197-85
designs at, 199, 226
Cartailhac, E., 49
Castillo, human figures at, 13
Catalonia, Asturian culture in, 26
Cattle, occurrence of, 25, 475 Neo-
lithic, 62-3; at Anau, 85-6. See
also Ox

[Prometheus]

Cawdor, Earl, 184
Celts, Neolithic, 102-6, 173; from
Scotland, 1835 from Troy, 190;
from Italy, 1915 in Spain, 194,
195, 196; from Brittany, 199;
Copper and Bronze Age, 202-4,
PL 26. 1-9

Chalcolithic culture, 3
Chamblandes, burials at, 159
Childe, V. G., 134 n,, 144, 157 n.
China, painted pottery from, 79,
143, 216

ns

Chisels, Neolithic, 106-8, PL 10.

7, 8, Pl. 11. 2. See also Shoe last
Ciempozuelos pottery, 196, 222,
Pl. 25

Cissbury, chisels from, 108 j flint
mines at, 174, 175

Cleveland Hills, pigmy flints from,
167

Climate, Palaeolithic, 55 Mesolithic,
10, 28, 755 Neolithic, 74-9, 97,
X3X> x33> 135

Clonfinlough, design at, 222, 228,
Pl. 27. 2
Coffey, G., 184
Colne Valley, industry, 164
Combs, occurrence of, 43
Constantine Bay, Padstow, pigmy
industry at, 167

Copper, in Spain, 50, 150, 152, 185,
192, 195-6; in eastern Europe,
138; at Carnac, 158; in the Swiss
Lake Dwellings, 161; at Stone-
henge, 178; in Egypt, 187; in
the Greek islands, 189; at Troy,
190; in Sardinia, 192; in Hun-
gary, 2005 and tin, 201
Corded pottery, 126, 135-6, 156
Cornwall, Mesolithic industry in,
19, 167

Correia, V., 162
Coton, celt from, 104, Pl. 8. 4
Crannogs, in Ireland, 93
Crawford, O. G. S., 184
Cremation, occurrence of, 133, 136,
137, 183, 207-8

Creswell Crags, industry at, 163,
164, 168

Crete, Neolithic culture in, 1875
Copper and Bronze Ages in,
188-9, 190, 208-95 influence of,
197-8

Crimea, Tardenoisean culture in
the, 18

Cromlech (stone circle), description
of, 146, Pl. 225 at Carnac, 148,
x99

Cucuteni, Moldavia, painted pot-
tery at, 138, 140
 INDEX

236

Cueva Menga, passage grave at, x 50;

human figures at, 230
Cypriote daggers, 205
Cyprus, tools from, 200, 205

Daggers, Neolithic, 113, PI. 12. 3,
155; Spanish, 195, 196, 197,
220; Copper and Bronze, 204-5,
PL 26

Danube, the, and migrations, 97,
100, 146; pottery, 122, 124, 190,
Pl. 15. 10-12, 14, 15; civilisation
of, ch. V passim, 154, 160; trade
with Troy, 191
D6chelette, J., 162, 211
Deer Park, Sligo, megaliths, 177
Denmark, pigmy industries in, 165
and Maglcmosean culture, 27 fF.;
and Kitchen midden culture, 44,
56; Neolithic implements from,
104, 105, 108, 118, 120, Pl. 14. 4;
Bronze Age garment from, 210
Dimini, Thessaly, painted pottery
at, 140, 142
Discs, Neolithic, 120
Dorpfeld, W., 200
Dog, Azilian, 10, 56; Tardenoisean,
23 j Kitchen midden, 40, 43;
Neolithic, 635 at Anau, 86
Dolmens, description of, 148-9, Pl.
22. 1, ia; Spanish, 194-65 at
Carnac, 198; designs on, 224-31
Domestic animals, 2, 4, 9, 23, 25,
26, 40, 46, 47, 50-2, 56-64; at
Anau, 85-6; of Troy, 190; in
Italy, 191; in Spain, 219. See also
Cattle, Dog, Goat, Horse, Pig,
Sheep

Dowth, tumulus at, 226
Drumvaig, see Oban
Dupont, E., 21
Dzungarian Gate, the, 82, 83

East Anglia, tools of, 102-22;
microliths in, 167, 170, PL 24;
Neolithic culture in, 170, 172,
173, 174, 179, 1825 Beaker Folk
in, 182; Bronze Age in, 201

Eastbourne, scraper from, no, PL

10. 5

Eastern Area, described, 97; pottery
of the, 122, Pl. 15, 126; culture
of the, 131-43

Egypt, sickle from, 55; plough
from, 55 n.$ domestic animals of,
64; painted pottery in, 143; and
megaliths, 151-2; Neolithic in-
dustries of, 185-75 Copper and
Bronze Ages in, 187, 210; and
Crete, 209 n.

El Argar culture, 197
Eneolithic culture, 3
England, megaliths in, 151, 153;
Mesolithic times in, 163-70; post-
Mesolithic times in, 170-2; Neo-
lithic times in, 173-83. See also
Britain

Eolithic period, 3
Eridu, painted pottery at, 189
Eriswell, Neolithic implements from,
108, 114, Pl. 10. 9 and Pl. n.
10

Erosd, Transylvania, painted pot-
tery at, 138

Essex, post-Mesolithic industries in,
170, 172

Evans, Sir A., 209
Ewart, J. C., 72, 73

Fabricator, Neolithic, 108-9,

10. XI

Fayum, the, Neolithic industry in,
185

Federsee, Wiirttemberg, and the
“Boreal” period, 75, 765 pottery
from, 126, Pl. 18. 7-9
Figurines, human, 86,134,143,188,
191, 216-17, Pis. 20. 3, 5, 21. 3
and 29. 5

Finland, Maglemosean culture in,
27, 30 “comb” decoration in,
*54

Fish, hooks, 36; engravings of, 213,
216, PL 25. 4, 5
Fishing, at Troy, 190
Flax, in Neolithic civilisation, 54
 INDEX

Flint, flaking, 15, 16, 67, 68, 69;
quarrying of, 70-2; in Neolithic
huts, 88; in England, 173
Flint implements, see Tools
Folkton Wold, chalk drums from,
231, PI. 29. 3
Fontanalba, art of, 224
Fontanella, Bronze Age culture at,
208

Fordham, arrow-head from, 114,
Pl. 11. 5

Forests, and Neolithic culture, 97,
167, 179, 180

Fox, Dr Cyril, 94, 182, 184, 211
France, Azilian culture in, 12, 13,
14; 23; Asturian culture in, 26;
Maglemosean finds in, 27
Fry, Dr, 176

Furfooz, Mesolithic industries at, 21

Gabal, rock shelter at, 222
Galicia, painted pottery in, 138; rock
carvings in, 222, 228, PI. 27.4
Gams, H., 101

Gavr’inis, designs at, 199, 226, PI.
29. 1

Germany, Azilio-Tardenoisean cul-
ture in, 20-1; climate of, 75-7,
97; Neolithic houses in, 88-9;
migrations into, 97, 156
Gimpera, P. Bosch, 162
Glastonbury Lake village, 93
Goat, found in Swiss Lake dwellings,
62

Gobi Desert, and Neolithic civilisa-
tion, 79, 82, 83

Gohlitsch, Saxony, kist tomb near,
226

Goessler, 89

Gold, in prehistoric times, 1, 2; in
Egypt, 187; at Troy, 190; in Spain,
192, 196, 197; in Ireland, 228
Gouge, Neolithic, 108, PL 9. 3
Gozo, culture of, 191
Granaries, in Egypt, 186
Grand Pressigny, flint from, 19,122,
159, 161, 199
Grapes, Neolithic, $4

m

Greece, Neolithic houses in, 905
pottery in, 118, 188; Bronze Age
in, 209-10

Grenelle, human remains at, 23
Grimes Graves, flint from, 71; im-
plement from, no, PL 10. 4;
industry at, 170, 174-5
Grossgartach, Neolithic house at, 89
Grotte des Enfants, 18, 19-20
Guden River, pigmy tools from, 45,
PL 5

Habitations, Palaeolithic, 5; Neo-
lithic, 86-95; pottery models of,
90; of the Eastern Area, 132,

136-7; at Troy, 190; Bronze Age,
207

Haddon, A. C., 101
Haldorf, Hesse Cassel, Neolithic
house at, 89
Hall, H. R., 200, 211
Hallstatt culture, 3, 207
Hallstrom, G., 231
Harpoons, 6, 10; Azilian, 13, 18,
164, 165, Pl. 1. 1 a, 166, 167;
Maglemosean, 36, Pl. 3, 38, 43,
44, 1705 Neolithic, 119, PL 13. 3
Hastings, pigmy industry near, 19,
167

Havelse Ros, Kildefjord, harpoons
from, 36

Helladic culture, 210
Hesbayt,fonds de cabanes at, 87, 132
Hesse, and Danubian culture, 133
Hinkelstein pottery, 122, Pl. 15.6.8,
133

Hoernes, M., 72
Holland, in Neolithic times, 158
Holmegaards Mose, shoulder point
from, 32

Horse, occurrence of, 23, 25, 47, 565
Neolithic, 63-4; at Anau, 85
Hungary, pottery in, 124; knife
blades from, 132; trade with, 200

Icklingham, Neolithic implements
from, 106, no, 114, Pl. 10. 3. 8,
Pl. 11.1
 INDEX

238

India, pigmy industries in, 16; and
Sumerian culture, 189, 21072.
Ireland, implements from, 120,
Pl. 14. 2. 3, 172; beakers from,
182; connexion of, with Brittany,
199, 226; prehistoric art in, 226-
30, PI. 29. 2

Italy, Mesolithic culture in, 18, 19,
2oj pile-dwellings in, 915 Neo-
lithic burial in, 96} Beaker Folk
in, 138; Copper Age culture in,
191 j Bronze Age culture in, 197

Javelins, Neolithic, 120, 155, 176
Johansen, K. F., 49
Jutland, animal figures from, 38;
shell mounds in, 44} pigmy tools
in, 45} 118; Battle Axe Folk in,
*55> *57

Kasemose, pigmy tools from, 37
Keller, F., 91
Kempchik Bom, the, 83
Kentford, Neolithic fabricator from,
108, PL 10. 11

Kirkcudbright, Azilian culture near,
*3> 164

Kists, stone, burial in, 136} de-
scription of, 149, PI. 22. 6} in
Scandinavia, 150} in England,
151, 177} in Spain, 196
Kitchen middens, 4, 10, 40-5 j Folk
of the, 43, 45, 154
Knockmany, tumulus, 226, 230
Knossos, Neolithic industries at,
187-8} Bronze Age at, 209
Knowles, W. J., 184

La Franca, cave of, 25
Laguna de la Janda, rock shelters at
the, 217

Laibach, see Loubliana
Lake-dwellings, 91-4, 106 j culture
of the, 100, 137, 145, 160-1;
pottery of the, 124, PL 16. 3, 8,10,
126, 135} *n the Bronze Age, 207
Lakenheath, Neolithic implements
from, 103, 108, Pl. 8. 2, PL 11. 2

Lamp, from Cissbury, 175
Lances, Bronze Age, 205, PL 26
Land’s End, pigmy flints from, 167
La Pileta, rock paintings, 220
Lapis lazuli at Anau, 85
Las Batuecas, rock shelters at, 218,
219

Las Carolinas, pottery from, 194,
PL 25. 3

Las Figuras, paintings at, 218

La Tkne culture, 3

La Tourasse (Pyrenees), dog at, 10,56

Layard, N., 73

Leeds, E. T., 184

Leka, Norway, paintings at, 214

Lengyel, Hungary, barley from, 54;

pottery from, 134
Lequeux, L., 48

Lincolnshire, pigmy flints in, 167,
170

Littorina Utorea, evidence from, 26,29
Los Letreros, wall-painting at, 55,
219

Los Millares, pottery from, 194, 222
Los Molinos, painting at, 219
Los Murci61agos, cave of, 192
Loubliana (Laibach), lake-dwellings
near, 91, 925 pottery, 137, PL 20,
159, 161

Loughcrew, tumuli, 226, 230
Lydekker, R., 72, 73

Macalister, R. A. S., 232
McArthur’s Cave, see Oban
MacCurdy, G. G., 232
Magdalenian culture, influence of,
in England, 164
Magic, and art, 2, 6, 65, 223
Maglemosean culture, 10, 27-39,
554> 213, Pl* 3 5 name of, 31 w.j
in Yorkshire, 170
Malta, culture of, 191-2
Man, Isle of, beaker from, 182}
“scribed stones” from, 182 n.
Manea, Honey Hill, industry at, 182
Marschwitz culture, 200
Marsden, see Warcock Hill
Mas d’Azil, cave of, 8
 INDEX

239

Mayen, “post-houses” near, 88-9
Mediterranean area, 98, ch. vin;
race, 99; Bronze Age culture in
the, 201, 208-10, 217; and the
Earth Mother, 231
Megalithic constructions, 31, 145,
146-9, 151-2, 154; in England,
173, 175-95 in Spain, 194-6; art
and, 224-31

Melos, obsidian from, 188, 189
“Menhir Idol” the, 231, PL 29. 7
Menhirs, description of, 1465 at
Carnac, 148,198-9; drawings on,
224; carvings on, 231
Mentone, Grotte des Enfants, 18,
19-20; 163, 168
Merejkowsky, C. de, 49
Merseburg, and the Rossen culture,
136^

Mesolithic period, 3, ch. I passim;
influence of, 1455 in England,
164-70, 173

Mesopotamia, the battle axe and,
157 pottery from, 189; Bronze
Age culture of, 210-11, 216
Metals, use of, 50, 56, 216; at Anau,
85-6; and megaliths, 151, 158,
176, 197, 198, 199. See also
Copper, Bronze, etc.

Michelberg, pottery from, 126,
PL 17. 1-2

Mill for grinding grain, 54, 56
Millet, Neolithic, 53
Minoan cultures, 209-10, 215
Minyan pottery, 210
Mondsee, pile dwellings in the, 137,
161

Montmorency, Neolithic site at, 55,
159

Moravia, and Danubian culture,
133, 134; Beaker Folk burials in,
137; and Thessaly, 140, 142; 163;
painted pottery in, 216
Morgan, J. de, 46 n.

Mordake, pot from, 124, 173,
Pl. 16. 9

Mouflon, ancestor of domesticated
sheep, 58-60

Muller, M. H., 48
Muller, S., 49, 162
Mughem, tumuli at, 23, 100
Muller up, great bog of, 31, 32. See
also Maglemosean
Munro, R., 48
Murray, M. A., 200
Mycenean culture, 142, 209-10
Myres, J. L., 155

Mytilus edulisy evidence from, 25, 26

Nakadah, burials at, 187
Narvik, rock engravings, 212
Navarro, J. M. de, 211
Naxos, emery from, 189
Necklaces, 6, 21, 22
Needles, 6, 36, 119, Pl. 13. 4, 196
Neoanthropic Man, 99
Neolithic civilisation, 3, 50-101;
races, 98-101; typology, ch. IV;
culture in Eastern Area, ch. V;
culture in Northern and Western
Areas, ch. vi; culture in England,
170-83; in Africa, 186
New Grange, tumulus, 226, 230
Nostvet, Mesolithic industry at, 45
Nordhagen, H., 101
Nordic race, the, 99, 100-1
North Cray, industry at, 163 n.
Northern Area, the, described, 97;
celts of, 1045 pottery of, 124,
Pl. 17, 126; influence of, on
Eastern Area, 135, 136; culture
of, ch. VI

Norway, Mesolithic industry in, 45;
art in, 212-15

Notenschrifty pottery decoration, 122,
132

Oban, Azilian culture at, 10, 13, 56,
164, 165-6, 167

Obermaier, Dr H., 7, 12, 48, 194,
200, 222, 232

Obsidian, occurrence of, 16, 188,
191, 192

Ochre, use of, 12, 21, 22

Ofnet, Bavaria, burials at, 20-1, 100

Oltingen, Neolithic house at, 89
 INDEX

24O

Omalian industry, 124, 134, PI. 15.
it. 12, 159

Ornaments, 21, 22, 43, 136} in
Spanish dolmens, 195
Oronsay Island, Azilian culture on,
13, 164, 166-7
Osborn, H. F., 7

Ox, occurrence of, 22, 62-3, PL 6. 1,
199; in rock drawings, 223, 224,
230. See also Domestic animals

Pacheco, E. H., 232
Painted Pottery Folk, 142-3
Palaeolithic period, 3, 4, 5-7, 8,
51, 755 in the Baltic Area, 27-85
in Moravia, 39; domestic animals
in the, 56-7, 645 pottery in the,
65; tool-making in the, 67-8;
in China, 79; in England, 163-4,
174; art of the, 212, 215
Palliardi, J., 144

Palmella culture, in Spain, 193-4,
Pl. 25. 1-3

Palstaves, 202, Pl. 26. 5
Pamirs, the, 81; pass in, 82, 83
Paros, marble from, 188, 189
Parry, T. W., 101
Passage Graves, culture of, 89; pot-
tery of, 124; description of, 149,
Pl. 22. 2-4, 150; English, 151,
153; Spanish, 195, 1965 in Brit-
tany, 199
Patiri, G., 48
Peake, H., 211
Pears, Neolithic, 54
Pebbles, painted, 12-13, PI* 1
Peet, T. E., 211

Pena Tti, paintings and engravings
at, 218, 220, Pl. 27. 1
Penmaenmawr, quarry at, 70;

scratched lines at, 174, 216
Pennines, the, pigmy Bints from,
167-70

Peterborough, finds de cabanes near,
173

Petreny, Bessarabia, painted pottery
at, 138

Petrie, Sir Flinders, 84.fi., 186 n.

Picks, Asturian, 24, PL 1. 2; Neo-
lithic, 42, Pl. 5. <2,108-10, Pl. 10,9
Piette, E., 8, 48

Pig, occurrence of, 23, 255 “Tur-
bary,” 63; at Anau, 85
Pigmy flints, 15-20, 22, 23, 32,
36-7; in England, 38, 167-70; in
Kitchen middens, 45; in Jutland,
ib*\ in Africa, 185; in Spain, 194.
See also Tardenoisean
Pile-dwellings, see Lake dwellings
Pins, Bronze Age, 206, Pl. 26
Plough, Neolithic, 54-5, 118, PL
13. 2; in rock drawings, 223, 224,
230, PL 28. 1

Poland, pigmy industries in, 16;
Tardenoisean culture in, 18;
Maglemosean culture in, 27, 39
Pole’s Wood South, barrow at, 176
Poppy, Neolithic, 54
Portugal, Mesolithic industries in,
13 n., 18; megaliths in, 151,
194-6; rock shelters in, 217, 218
Potter’s wheel, evidence of, 86, 188,
190

Pottery, criterion of, 2, 3, 9, 22, 23,
26; “comb,” 31, 124, 154-5; in
kitchen middens, 40, 43; Cam-
pignian, 46, 47; Neolithic, 50,
64-7, 88, 122-8,^ 173, 185-95,
2x5-17; Palaeolithic, 65; painted,
79? 9°> 95? 138-43? 189, 216;
from Anau, 85-6; of the Eastern
Area, 122, Pl. 15, 126, 131-435
of the Northern Area, 124, PL 17,
126, 154; of the Western Area,
124, Pl. 16, 126, 153-4; corded
ware, 126, 135; Butmir, 143,
PL 215 Camp de Chassey, 159,
Pl. 16. 4-7, 11, 12; Egyptian,
186-7; Cretan, 188; from Greece,
/&.; Mesopotamian, 189; in Asia
Minor, 190; in Italy, 191; in
Malta and Gozo, 191; in Sar-
dinia, 192; in Spain, 192-4; PL
25.1-3, 222; Copper Age, 195-6,
200; Bronze Age, 197, 206, Pl. 265
Aegean, 209-10
 INDEX

24I

Pottier, E., 144, 231
Pousthomy, “menhir idol” at, 231
Prescelly, blue stone from, 178
Pullenhofen, climatic changes at, 76
Pumpelly, R., 72, 85, 86
Puydt, M. de, 73, 101

Quine, J., 184

Quy, implement from, 116, PI. 11.

11

Races, Neolithic, 98-101
Rahir, E., 48

Rakhmani, Thessaly, pottery at,
142

Rapiers, Bronze Age, 205, Pl. 26
Rathkenny, engravings at, 228
Ravensburg, climatic changes at, 76
Reach Fen, celt from, 103, PI. 8. 5
Reindeer, occurrence of, 10, 19, 30,
39, 75j painting of, 214
Reinerth, H., 144

Religion, Sumerian, 210-115 and
art, 223; and idols, 230-1
Remedello, Bronze Age culture at,
208

Remouchamps, Belgium, Tardenoi-
sean site, 15, 19
Ridgeway, Sir W., 101
Ripple ware, 188

RSssen pottery, 122, Pl. 15. 5, 7, 13,
I33>   i56

Romanelli (Otranto), cave at, 18
Rouzic, Z. le, 232
Rushford, implement from, 120
Russia, pigmy industries in, 165 and
painted pottery, 1385 Battle Axe
Folk in, 156, 157; 188; rock
drawings in, 224

St Gertrude, Maestricht, flints from,
71-2, 174

St Nicholas (Cardiff), chambered
tomb at, 89

Saint-Sernin, “menhir idol” at, 231
San Dalmazo, rock drawings near,
223, Pl. 28. 1
Sarasin, F., 48, 231

Sarauw, G., 49
Sardinia, culture of, 192
Scandinavia, and Maglemosean cul-
ture, 27, 39; and Shell Mound
culture, 45; Neolithic implements
from, 104, 108, 113; megaliths in,
150, 151; rock drawings in, 212-
15, 224. See also Sweden, Nor-
way

Schipenitz, Bukowina, painted pot-
tery at, 138, 140, 142
Schist idols, in Spain, 195, 196, 220,
230-1, Pl. 29, 6. 8
Schmidt, R. R., 49
Schr&nil, J., 211

Scodand, implements from, 182.

See also Oban and Oronsay
Scrapers, Neolithic, 110-12, PL 10.

3? 4? $> 10

Scunthorpe (Lines.), pigmy tools at,
170, Pl. 24. D

Seistan, 835 and the Sumerians, 210
Serpents, on megalithic monuments,
199, 226

Sess Kilgreen, design on tumulus at,
199, 226, PL 29. 2
Settle, see Victoria Cave
Sevenoaks, pigmy industry near,

[Prometheus]

23

Sheep, occurrence of, 23; domesti-
cated, 58-62, Pl. 6; at Anau,
85-6

Ships, rock engravings of, 224, 230
Shoe last tool, 116,118, Pl. 13. 2 and
21. 15, 132, 136, 140, 143
Sickle, criterion of, 43; Neolithic
54-6, PL 12. 5 and PL 30, 112;
at Anau, 85; from the Camp de
Chassey, 1595 180; Egyptian,
186; Bronze Age, 206, PL 26. 265
in Spanish art, 219
Sierra Morena, rock shelters in, 218,
219

Silver, occurrence of, 187, 190, 192,
196, 197
Siret, L., 194

Siwa oasis, sickle from, 112, Pl. 12.6
185
 INDEX

242

Slate palettes, Egyptian, 187
Slugs, Neolithic implements, 112
Smith, R., 183, 184
Snail shells, evidence from, 10, 25,
26, 78

Sollas, W. J., 7

Spain, Azilian culture in, 12,13, 14;
Tardenoisean culture in, 16, 18,
22, 23; Asturian culture in, 24-65
and the Beaker folk, 137, 180,
197; megaliths in, 150-2; 163;
copper in, 185, 192-4; Bronze
Age in, 197; rock shelter art in,
217-24; and Ireland, 228; art in
prehistoric tombs in, 230-1, PI. 29
Sphagnum peat, 76
Spiennes, flint mine at, 72
Spiral, the, in Egypt, 187; in Malta,
191; in Spain, 195, 218; near San
Dalmazo, 2235 at Gavr’inis, 226,
PL 29. 1; in Ireland, 226, 230,
PL 29. 2

Spiral-Meander pottery, 122, Pl. 15.
x-4> 133

Stein, Sir Aurel, 82
Stickband9 pottery decoration, 122,
PL 15. 9, 133
Stone, E. H., 184

Stonehenge, interpretation of, 177-9
Studer, T., 73
Sumerians, the, 189, 210-11
Susa, painted pottery from, 142,143,

2t6

Sussex, pigmy flints from, 19, 167
Svaerdborg, Maglemosean culture
at, 31, 32, PL 4

Sweden, Mesolithic industry in, 45;
celts from, 104; ‘‘comb” decora-
tion in, 154; conquests by, 156-7;
rock engraving in, 213, 224
Switzerland, Azilian culture in, 13;
Neolithic husbandry in, 53, 93;
Neolithic stock-raising in, 60-25
pile-dwellings,9r, 106,154, r6o-i;
migrations into, 100; harpoons in,
119; and Danubian culture, 134
Swords, Bronze Age, 205, PL 26
Syria, Mesolithic industries in, 18

Tardenoisean culture, 10, 14-23,
132, Pl. 2; human origins, 20, 99;
in England, 167-70, Pl. 23; in
Africa, 185; in Spain, 192
Termini Imerese, Sicily, industries
at, 18

Terremare settlements, 207
Textiles, Neolithic, 54, 935 Bronze
Age, 210

Thessaly, painted pottery in, 138,
140

Thomas, H., 178
Thompson, M. S., 144
Thuringia, corded pottery in, 135,
156

Tin, occurrence of, at Anau, 86;
at Troy, 190; in Brittany, 198;
in Bohemia, 200; and bronze, 201
Tools, antler and bone, 6 5 Azilian, 10;
Tardenoisean, 19, 235 Asturian,
24; Maglemosean, 30, 32, 36-9;
Kitchen midden, 40, 42, 44,
PL 5. d, e; at Anau, 85, ch. IV
passim; from the Camp de Chassey,
159; Egyptian, 186; see also Har-
poons

Tools, flint and stone, 6; Azilian, 10;
Tardenoisean, 15-2 3; Asturian,
245 Maglemosean, 30,   32-65

Kitchen midden, 40-25 Cam-
pignian, 46-7; Neolithic, 50,
67-72, ch. IV; from Central Asia,
82, 85; typology, ch. iv passim;
of the Eastern Area, 132, 136;
Butmir, 143; of the Northern and
Western Areas, 153, 155, 158,
159; of the Swiss Lake Dwellings,
160, 1615 from Colne Valley, 164;
from the River Bann, 172, Pl.
14. 3; of Long Barrows, 1735
Egyptian, 186-7; Cretan, 1885
Italian, 191; Spanish, 192, 194-6
Tools, metal, 202-6, Pl. 26, 217
Trade, prehistoric, 158, 161, 188,
191,192,198,199-200,201,206-7
Transport, 1; by water, 14,31,93~4>
224,230; by wheeled vehicles, 219,
Pl. 27 3
 243

index

Transylvania, painted pottery in,

Tras-os-Montes, paintings at, 230
Trephining, prehistoric, 10 r, 196
Tripolje culture, 89, 138
Trochus lineatus, evidence from, 25,
26

Troy (Hissarlik), discoveries at, 190-
1; trade with, 200; daggers at,
205 n,

“Turbary” sheep, 61, 85, 86
Typology, 99 j Neolithic, ch. rv$
Bronze Age, 202-6

Uley, “Hetty Peglers Tump,”
176

Undley, arrow-head from, 114, Pl.
11. 4

Urial, ancestor of domesticated
sheep, 60-1, Pl. 6

Valle, cave of, 16
Vasconcellos, J. L. de, 232
Vassits, M. M., 144
Vega del Sella, Conde de la, 24, 49,
232

Velez Blanco, rock shelters at, 217,
219, 222

Victoria Cave, Settle, Azilian culture
in, 13, 164-5, 166
Vinca, Danubian site, 134
Viollier, D., 72
Vouga, P., 160, 162

Wace, A. J. B., 144
Warcock Hill, Marsden (Yorks.),
pigmy industries at, 168, Pl.
23

Warren, S. H., 73, 167, 170, 172,
184

Weber, on Sphagnum peat, 76
West Kennet, long barrow, 175
Western Area, described, 98; celts
of the, 1035 pottery of the, 124,
Pl. 16, 1265 culture of the, ch. Vi
Wheat, Neolithic, 53, 54; at Anau,

85

Whitepark Bay, Neolithic tools at,
172

Whorl, stone, 119, Pl. 13. 5; at
Anau, 855 terra-cotta, 1445 Scot-
tish, 182

Wilburton hoard, the, 202 n.
Wiltshire, long barrows in, 1755
beakers in, 182
Wosinski Mor, 144
Writing, invention of, 187, 189,
210

Yoldia Sea, the, 28
Yorkshire, microlithic industry in,
19, 167-705 Maglemosean culture
in, 38

Zammit, T., 200

Zemljanka, the, in South Russia, 89
Zonhoven, Tardenoisean site, 14, 19
 CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY
W. LEWIS, M.A.

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS