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Our Early Ancestors by M. C. Burkitt Publication date 1929
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OUR EARLY ANCESTORS
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.168265
RECONSTRUCTED VIEW OF'PILE DWELLING AND VILLAGE
OUR EARLY ANCESTORS
AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF MESOLITHIC,
NEOLITHIC AND COPPER AGE CULTURES
IN EUROPE AND ADJACENT REGIONS
by
M. C. BURKITT, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S.
University Lecturer at Cambridge in the Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Author of Prehistory, Our Forerunners, South Africa's Past in Stone
and Paint, etc.
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1929
First Edition 1926
Reprinted 1929
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
PREFACE
It is far easier to write a text-book on Palaeolithic than
on Neolithic times. Just as the average geologist will
readily sketch out a clear and comprehensive account
of Palaeozoic times, but may fail to derive any con-
sistent story from Quaternary gravels and other late
deposits, so the prehistorian finds the earlier Palaeolithic
cultures much easier to deal with, than the far more
complicated, though later and more fully preserved,
Neolithic and early Metal Age remains. The difficulties
are of three kinds. Firstly, where so much has been pre-
served for us to study, a far more detailed and wider
knowledge is required, and this is for the most part
only gained by actual work in the field or prolonged
study in many a foreign museum. Published results
are generally to be found scattered through numberless
papers and journals, many of them local publications
not always easy to come across. Secondly, having
acquired a certain number of facts, the writer has to
settle what he is going to leave out, and this is by no
means his lightest task. The following book, as the
title states, is meant to act as an introduction to the
study of the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and earliest Metal
Ages and, as such, details of purely local significance
are naturally out of place. The writer in the course of
lecturing has felt the lack of such a book and, although
he is painfully aware of the shortcomings of the present
volume, he feels that such an introductory text-book
may be welcome to many a student who, with the help
of the bibliographies, will afterwards be able to pro-
ceed further either in the elucidation of the industries
VI
PREFACE
of a given area or in some more general problem.
Curiously enough very few text-books, covering the
periods in question, have been published, but among
serious works are The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. i,
and V. G. Childe’s The Dawn of European Civilisation,
a book that no student of the subject can afford to
leave unstudied, though brilliant as it is with its wealth
of detail, a certain knowledge of typology is unavoidably
assumed. Thirdly there is the difficulty that con-
fronts the writer of such a book as this, namely the
choice of a method of approach. Naturally the area to
be considered has first to be decided upon, the whole
world cannot be covered in a single work. But humanity
is so interrelated and outside influences from far-off
districts have all so played their part in the building
up of European Neolithic and early Metal Age cultures
that it is not easy to know where to draw the line. Again,
should a geographical or a chronological scheme be
followed ? If the former the pre-history of many areas
must be followed separately, and a number of histories
produced, consistent in themselves but not always easy
to interrelate, while the interaction of all the different
cultures makes the second method one of great diffi-
culty. However one may expect in the future that still
more importance will be attached to making and utilising
distribution maps, in which all finds of a given industry
are carefully plotted out on an ordinary large scale map
with the result that the exact limits of a given industry
or culture, and sometimes its movements and inter-
actions, can be determined. This long and painstaking
work is far from completion, even as far as Europe is
concerned, and it will be many years before the work,
which requires detailed knowledge of every find both
ancient and modern, is in any sense finished.
PREFACE
VU
My most sincere thanks are due to many kind friends
for help in the compilation of the present work. Firstly
I want to thank my wife who has not only helped
materially in the text itself, but has also drawn all the
plates that were not directly reproduced from other
works, except the map, for which I am indebted to
my father. Mr V. Gordon Childe has been most kind in
making suggestions and criticisms. Dr Haddon, always
a tower of strength to the would-be author has, as
always, been more than kind and helpful. Miss Askwith
and Mrs Quiggin have relieved me of all the mechanical
troubles connected with its production, not to speak of
the index making. I also desire to thank my aunt,
Miss Parry, who has taken upon herself the correcting
of the proof-sheets. Several colleagues have most kindly
allowed me to copy illustrations from their published
works; to Dr F. Johannsen, Dr Reinerth, Dr Aberg
and Mr F. Buckley I am especially indebted in this
respect. The figures of implements in chapter iv are
mostly drawn from originals in the Cambridge Museum
of Archaeology and Ethnology or in my own collection.
A number of references to a small bibliography appear
at the end of each chapter. Certain works of especial
importance to the student are marked with an asterisk.
M. C. BURKITT
Cambridge, 1926
CONTENTS
PREFACE V
INTRODUCTION ...... I
CHAP, I. MESOLITHIC TIMES ... 8
II. NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION , . 50
III. NEOLITHIC CIVILISATION {cofltd') „ 74
IV. TYPOLOGY ..... 102
V. NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF THE EAST-
ERN AREA AND LATE NEOLITHIC
TIMES IN CENTRAL EUROPE . . X 31
VI. NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF THE
NORTHERN AND WESTERN AREAS . I45
VII. A BRIEF SKETCH OF ENGLAND IN
MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC, AND EAR-
LIEST METAL AGE TIMES . . 163
VIII. THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA AND
THE COPPER AGE .... 1B5
IX. PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE
BRONZE AGE CULTURES , . . 201
X. ART ...... 212
INDEX
*33
ILLUSTRATIONS
Reconstructed view of Pile Dwelling and Village Frontispiece
Plate I. (1) Azilian harpoons and examples of “painted pebbles.” (2) A typical Asturian pick . page 11
2. (1) Tardenoisean pigmies from France, Belgium, Portugal, and the Mediterranean basin (2) Small industries from far-off countries. Australia, Ceylon, India .... 17
3- Maglemosean tools: harpoon, adze, spatula. Two amber figurines ..... 33
4- Examples from Svaerdborg: pigmy tools, scraper, pick, adze 35
5- Examples of pottery and tools from the kitchen middens and shell mounds .... 41
6. (1) Head of Bos prtmigenius. (2) Head of a Urial ram. (3) Head of a Urial ewe. (4) Head of a Mouflon ram. (5) Head of an Argali ram . 59
7- Sketch map showing physical geography of Cen- tral Asia 81
8. Neolithic tools I05
9- Neolithic tools 107
xo. Neolithic tools ...... 109
XX. Neolithic and Earliest Metal Age tools . « in
12. Neolithic and Earliest Metal Age tools 115
*3- Neolithic tools ...... 1x7
14. Neolithic tools 121
ILLUSTRATIONS
XI
Plate 15. Examples of decorated Neolithic pottery belong-
ing to the culture of the Eastern Area . . page
16. Examples of Neolithic pottery belonging to the
culture of the Western Area
17. Examples of decorated Neolithic pottery belong-
ing to the culture of the Northern Area .
18. Examples showing types of “mixed culture”
pottery that developed in Late Neolithic times
in Central Europe...........................
19. Examples showing types of the Beaker pottery of
the Copper Age..............................
20. Laibach pottery: Forms and designs drawn from
rough sketches made in the Museum at Loub-
liana (Laibach).............................
21. Examples of the industry found at Butmir (Bosnia)
2 2. Sketches to show forms of megalithic constructions
23. English Tardenoisean industries from: W. York-
shire, Pennines, Peacehaven, Hastings, Bam-
burgh. Narrow-blade industry from the Mars-
den district. Broad-blade industry from the
Marsden district .....
24. East Anglian small industries from: Brandon,
Kenny Hill, Lakenheath, Scunthorpe, Undley,
Weston near Stevenage ....
25. Decorated pottery of Copper Age from Spain.
Examples of Neolithic naturalistic art
26. Examples illustrating the principal types of Bronze
Age tools. The evolution of the celt during the
Bronze Age..................................
27. (1) Rock shelter art at Pefla Tu (Spain). (2) Rock
carving at Clonfinlough (Ireland). (3) Painting
of a wheeled cart from the Spanish Art Group
III. (4) Rock carvings similar to (2) but from
Galicia (Spain) ......
123
125
127
129
130
139
141
H7
169
171
193
203
221
ILLUSTRATIONS
XII
Plate 28. (1) Rock carvings from the Maritime Alps of
Early Metal Age, (2) Rock carvings from
Norway belonging probably to the “Arctic”
culture.................................................page 225
29. Carvings on the side wall of a megalithic tomb at
Gavr'inis (Brittany). (2) Carvings on the side
wall of a small tumulus at Sess Kilgrccn (Ire-
land). (3) Conventionalised engravings on the
Folkton chalk drum. (4) Pottery model of a
house of Neolithic Age, now in the Museum
at Brno. (5) Pottery figure from Anau. (6-8)
“Schist ” and “Menhir” idols . . * 227
30. Examples of the paintings of the Spanish Art
Group III . 229
The frontispiece is reproduced from The New Stone Age in Northern
Europe, by permission of Messrs Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York,
and G. Bell Sc Sons, Ltd., London.
OUR EARLY ANCESTORS
INTRODUCTION
Th e history of mankind—like the journals or pro-
ceedings of many learned societies—has been
divided into several volumes, each of which comprises
a number of separate parts. The third, and still un-
finished, volume of mankind’s history is concerned with
the so-called Iron Age which begins when this metal
came into common use for tool-making and other
general purposes. The second volume contains the
history of an earlier epoch before the smelting of iron
ores had been properly discovered, and when copper
and its alloy with tin—bronze—were the only metals
usually employed for tool-making, although gold, silver
and lead occur and were sometimes worked up into
objects of ornament, etc. The history and conditions
of human existence in this, the earlier, age of metal, is
one of surpassing interest and already very complex.
Whether we turn our eyes to the wonderful palaces and
towns of Bronze Age Crete, Greece, and the Aegean
generally, with their wealth of gold objects and artistic-
ally painted pots, faience figures, wall paintings, etc.,
or to the important trade routes that first sprang up
at this time across northern Europe, enabling the
highly prized Baltic amber to be conveyed up the valleys
and over the passes to the more settled ana developed
Mediterranean lands, we cannot fail to be astonished
at the modernity of these early cultures. Of course
nature had not yet been harnessed to the service of
man to the same extent as she is to-day, but after all, on
analysis, this harnessing of nature can, to a very large
extent, be expressed in the word transport. To-day
we transport ourselves and our goods in trains ana
2
INTRODUCTION
steamships, and our thoughts and words by telegraphs,
telephones and wireless. Although Bronze Age Crete
had no broadcasting, the germs of much of our modern
civilisation can be already discerned. Beyond the Alps,
in spite of the fact that trade routes were springing up,
and an interchange of commerce and culture with the
south was growing, the cultures of the northern lands
lagged behind those of the Mediterranean basin, and
there is nothing comparable to the brilliance of the
south. Wealth there was in abundance in the shape of
gold, as can be seen to-day by anyone who delves into
the vaults of the National Museum at Budapest, but
the art, decoration and workmanship remain barbaric,
and there is nothing corresponding to the delicacy and
skilful design of such objects as the cups from Vaphio
in Laconia with their embossed scenes of the wild
ox being caught in a net and then, tamed, being led
by a foot rope.
The history of mankind that Volume i lays before
us is very different. Here we find no knowledge of
metals manifested; all tools were made of wood, bone,
or stone; moreover, during the earlier and far longer
portion of this period (corresponding in our “pro-
ceedings” analogy to Parts i, a, 3, 4 and 5, out of a
total of 6), there was no knowledge of agriculture or
pottery, and animals had not yet been domesticated.
Mankind—in Europe and the Mediterranean basin,
the area mainly under review in this little book—was
still in the hunting stage; and, in spite of the existence
of a wonderful art practised for magic purposes by
the folk of the Later Old Stone Age—an art that,
given the circumstances, we should have a difficulty
in rivalling to-day—it must be admitted that during
most of the time included in Volume 1 humanity was
INTRODUCTION
3
in a very different and more primitive state of culture
than exists in Europe to-day, and that the germs of our
modern civilisation are not much in evidence.
At this point it will be convenient to give a table
showing in a simplified manner the various sub-
divisions of the history of mankind.
Volume III, part 3 = Steel Age.
part 2 = Newer Iron Age or La Tene Culture,
part 1 = Older Iron Age or Hallstatt Culture.
Volume II, part 3 = Later Bronze Age.
part 2 = Earlier Bronze Age.
part 1 = Copper Age (Eneolithic or Chalcolithic
Culture).
Volume I, part 6 = Neolithic Period.
part 5 = Mesolithic Period,
part 4 = Upper Palaeolithic Period,
part 3 = Middle Palaeolithic Period,
part 2 = Lower Palaeolithic Period,
part 1 = Eolithic Period.
Our concern in this book is with Volume 1, parts 5
and 6, and Volume n, part 1, but naturally a word or
two must be said of the cultures just preceding and
just following in order that our particular period may
be satisfactorily placed in its proper sequence and thus
be duly realised in relation to both its background and
foreground.
The older prehistorians did not admit the Mesolithic
Period as a separate entity. For them there was the
Palaeolithic, grouped as in our table, but including
the earlier part of what we have classed as Mesolithic,
while the later part of this same period was grouped
as Early Neolithic. The criteria employed to determine
whether a given industry on the border line should be
classed as Palaeolithic or Neolithic were: (1) the pre-
sence or absence of pottery, (2) the presence or absence of
INTRODUCTION
4
evidencefor domesticanimalsandagriculturc, (3) whether
polishing and grinding were employed in the making
of tools, or merely chipping. It is now recognised, how-
ever, that these criteria alone lead to anomalies. The
two contemporary folk who have left us heaps of their
kitchen refuse, the one on the shores of the Baltic and
the other in North Spain, and who, in spite of many
differences, are in many ways very similar in culture,
would, under the old scheme, have to be completely
separated, the former being classed as Early Neolithic,
the latter as Late Palaeolithic. At the end of Upper
Palaeolithic times a rapid change of temperature took
place in Western Europe and the climate ameliorated,
and with this change of climate the Palaeolithic history
of mankind closed. On the other hand we cannot class
everything after this change as Neolithic, for during a
long period mankind was living a very different life
from that of the true New Stone Age. It is therefore
convenient to create this Mesolithic stage to include all
those industries and cultures yet but dimly known that
start at the end of Magdalenian times on the change
of climate and finish with the appearance in quantity,
in western and northern Europe, of the polished stone
celts and the megalithic tombs. Although the Old
Stone Age hunter was no doubt largely exterminated
or, at any rate, became extinct with the change of
climate and conditions, a remnant probably survived
throughout Mesolithic times and even influenced the
higher culture of the New Stone Age invader before
becoming finally absorbed into the new civilisation.
How great an influence this Old Stone Age element
had in moulding the history of the newer folk it is
difficult to say with any degree of certainty. There have
been some students of the subject, however, who see
INTRODUCTION $
Prometheus:
the influence of the older cave burials in the desire to
build the large megalithic tombs which are so fre-
quently found in the so-called Western and Northern
Neolithic Areas.
To paint in our background it will not be necessary
to summarise the whole of Palaeolithic times; those who
are interested in this dim past have many works, both
large and small, to consults), but a brief picture of the
life and times of Upper Palaeolithic folk (Volume i,
part 4, of our table) will not be out of place.
The roots of Palaeolithic study are to a great extent
firmly fixed in geological history, and we must therefore
start by seeing what the Quaternary geologists can tell
us as to the climate, conditions and fauna that the
Upper Palaeolithic hunter had to contend with. If
readers could be borne back through the ages in
Titania’s car and landed in France during Palaeolithic
times, they would find the situation very different from
that which obtains to-day. During most of the time
under review cold, dry, steppe conditions prevailed,
except near mountain masses like the Alps, where ice-
fields and long glaciers penetrating far into the plains
produced tundra conditions. There were short hot
summers, it is true, but these were no compensation
for the long cruel winters. The Upper Palaeolithic
hunter and his family lived on the sunny side of valleys,
under overhanging rocks or in the mouths of caves.
It is not true to say that he actually lived in the depths
of the caves themselves, for his industries, the cinders
of his fires and so on, are never found in these places.
Nor should we expect it; the interiors of caves are not
only absolutely dark, requiring artificial light con-
tinually, but are also often very damp, and rheumatism
was apparently not unknown even in that remote past.
INTRODUCTION
6
Again, it would be unsatisfactory to have left your
family in the depth of a cave, while necessary hunting
for food took place, and to return to find that a cave
bear had taken up his residence in the vestibule! Food
consisted of game, which included many animals extinct
to-day, such as the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros,
and others which no longer exist under the warmer
skies of our western Europe, such as the reindeer
and the bison. The objects found in the “homes” in-
clude flint scrapers, graving tools, awls, etc., antler
harpoons, lance points and needles. These latter are
often small, beautifully made and eyed, and were no
doubt employed in the sewing together of small skins
for the purpose of making clothes. Objects of art are
common in the latter part of this period, and paintings
and engravings have been found in the depths of
caves. These caves, however, seem to have been of the
nature of temples, and this art seems to have been a
sympathetic magic to help the food supply^). The cave
home was kept warm by the fires at which the food
was cooked, and no doubt a rude degree of comfort
was obtainable. Cups for drinking purposes, in the
form of carefully shaped pieces of skull, have been
discovered, as well as necklaces made from animals’
teeth or shells—these being sometimes sea-shells
brought, in more than one instance, from as far as
sixty miles away. Careful ceremonial burial was often
practised.
The population of such a country as France must in
those days have been very small. A land, under the
best conditions, only supports a small hunting popula-
tion, and the climate in those days did not provide the
best conditions.
Then all at once, due to unknown causes, every-
INTRODUCTION
7
thing changed. The climate suddenly ameliorated, the
old fauna and flora vanished, and with them went the
old hunter; the last page of part 4 is closed and we
turn next to part 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES
(1) See, for example, Fossil Man in Spain, by Dr H. Obermaier;
Ancient Hunters, by W. J. Sollas; Men of the Old Stone Age,
by H. F. Osborn; Prehistory and Our Forerunners, by M. C.
Burkitt (Home University Series).
(2) M. C. Burkitt, Our Forerunners (Home University Series).
Chapters 9 and 10.
CHAPTER I
MESOLITHIC TIMES
The problem of the Transition Period lying be-
tween the series of cultures that are grouped
together as Palaeolithic and the Neolithic civilisation,
and which is often named the Mesolithic Period, has
long occupied the attention of the prehistorian investi-
gator. Formerly nothing was known of the many
industries that characterise this Mesolithic Period, and
the investigator found himself face to face with an
apparently catastrophic change in everything at the end
of Palaeolithic times, when the old industries and fauna
and wonderful art all suddenly disappear, their place
being taken by the, it must be admitted, dreary in-
dustries and cultures of early post-Palaeolithic times.
The hiatus between the Old and the New Stone Ages
seemed to be so marked that for a long time it was con-
sidered that at the close of the Quaternary Period
Europe became desolate and uninhabited, until, at a
much later date, fresh invasions, from the east, of New
Stone Age folk, repopulated the continent. Towards the
end of the nineteenth century Piette, a French pre-
historian and one of the pioneers of the subject, started
digging operations in the cave of Mas d’Axil (Arihge,
France). The situation of this cave is remarkable; the
River Arise flowing down a shallow valley suddenly
turns to the left and plunges through a low limestone
range. The tunnel so formed, which is about a quarter
of a mile in length, is large enough to be utilised to-day
for the main road which runs alongside the river. Half
way through further caves open on the right-hand side,
MESOLITHIC TIMES
9
looking down stream. They are of very great extent,
and it is said that at the time of the Albigensian Wars
an army took refuge in them and was completely con-
cealed. At their junction with the main tunnel rich
Upper Palaeolithic deposits of the Magdalenian Period
had already been discovered, but it was on the left bank
of the river (always looking down stream) where it
enters the hill, that Piette commenced digging opera-
tions and the following succession of deposits was
observed (i):
Surface soil.
Neolithic: Bronze (with foundry).
Loam with new industry = Azilian.
Sterile loam with reindeer bones.
Black loam with reindeer bones and Magdalenian industries
similar to those of the right bank. See above.
Sterile gravels.
From this section it will be seen that a new industry
lying between the Neolithic and Bronze cultures on the
one hand and the Late Magdalenian on the other had
been demonstrated, and for a time it seemed as if the old
problem of a hiatus had been solved and the Transition
culture connecting the two found. Later investigation,
however, showed that this was only partly true. This
new Azilian culture was found to have only a limited
distribution, and it has been shown that in Europe alone
there are certainly four different cultures of Transitional
date that, under the old classification, would still have
to be considered as Palaeolithic, As has been said before,
the modern Mesolithic section comprises also what used
to be classed as Early Neolithic cultures because some-
thing was known about pottery and domestic animals,
etc. But, as will be seen, they are very different from
the cultures of the true Neolithic folk, and have close
IO
MESOLITHIC TIMES
connections with those of the earlier Transitional
peoples. The Mesolithic Period includes the following
cultures:
X. Azilian. 4. Maglemosean.
2. Tardenoisean. 5. Kitchen Midden.
3. Asturian. 6. Campignian.
(N.B. No chronological sequence is indicated by this table of
cultures.)
AZILIAN CULTURE
This was the first Transitional culture discovered.
The climate and conditions under which the folk lived
were not so very different from those of to-day, although,
judging from the quantity of snail shells found in the
excavations in South France, it was at any rate there
rather damper. Forests probably abounded. The fauna
also was not dissimilar and the Quaternary animals had
disappeared. With the exception of dogs found in
Azilian excavations at La Tourasse (Pyrenees) and at
Oban (a) domesticated animals are absent. In place of the
splendid bone tools and beautifully made, if monotonous,
flint work of Magdalenian times, the industries consist
of bone polishers, spatulae or chisels, rough bone awls
and poorly made flint tools, including especially a large
number of small round scrapers. A new type of harpoon
occurs, broader and flatter than that made by Magda-
lenian man and with poorly cut barbs cut into, rather than
projecting from, the line of the edge (Plate 1, fig. 1, a, i).
As a rule the material is stag’s antler; reindeer, ex-
clusively used by the older folk for this purpose, being
very rare. A hole for attachment to a haft is common,
taking the form of a round or more often almond-shaped
splayed hole through the base of the stem. With the
old Palaeolithic hunter went his wondrous art, and in
MESOLITHIC times
12
MESOLITHIC TIMES
Azilian deposits we no longer find decorated bones,
tools and harpoons. Only one engraved object of
Azilian date is known, and this merely consists of a stone
covered with meaningless engraved lines. On the other
hand the so-called “painted pebbles” occur (Plate i,
fig. i). These consist of river pebbles, rounded and
smoothed by natural water action, that had been col-
lected and smeared over with red ochre in the form of
dots, bars, wavy lines, or combinations of these. The
pebbles, consisting as they do for the most part of hard
quartzite, have not absorbed the ochre paint which
remains on the surface and can be removed altogether
by slight friction. That they belong to this period is
shown by their being found in Azilian deposits associated
with the harpoon and other tools, and, in one case at
any rate, being encrusted with stalagmitic deposits that
have accumulated in the Azilian layer owing to the
dampness of the cave. Their distribution is not quite as
wide as the Azilian culture itself; they are not a sine qua
non in Azilian industries, but they have been found in
North Spain, the Pyrenees, and East France, etc., up to
just south of Basle1. The motive for painting these river
pebbles and their use is unknown. Dr Obermaier sug-
gests that in some cases, at any rate, the paintings are
meant to represent conventionalised human forms. This
idea arises from a suggested analogy with undoubted
conventionalisations of human beings found in rock
shelters which belong to the Copper Age art of Spanish
Art Group III, to be described in chapter x. It is however
a little difficult to connect the two. There is a consider-
1 So-called Azilian “painted pebbles” were long ago discovered in the
precincts of Late Celtic brochs in Caithness and published tentatively
as such. Later writers have copied this tentative suggestion as fact. An ex-
amination of the specimens themselves at once disproves this contention.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
13
able difference in time between them, not to speak of
culture. It has been suggested that these painted pebbles
were of the nature of money, counting boards, talismans,
etc., but none of these explanations seems to fit the case
satisfactorily. In one place all the painted pebbles were
found to be carefully broken in two (whether by friend
or foe is of course unknown); this would seem to indi-
cate that they were objects of some considerable import-
ance there. It has been suggested that they were only
playthings, and there is no particular reason why this
explanation should be much less likely than any of the
others. Certain cave paintings, shown by their super-
position to be later than the last phase of Magdalenian
art, which consist of barbed lines, etc., there being no
animal figures or the like, have been considered to be
Azilian in date, also a few conventionalised human
figures, such as the two little men in the vestibule at
Castillo u); but of this there is no proof. It is still uncer-
tain whether any of the art found in rock shelters in
Spain south of the northern mountains is Azilian.
The distribution of Azilian industries, using the flat
harpoon above described as the “type fossil,” is im-
portant. They have been found in: North Spain as far
west as Asturias1; the central districts of the French
Pyrenees; East France(4); Switzerland, just southwards
of Basle (5); Belgium, near Libge; Britain, at Victoria Cave
near Settle, western Yorkshire (Plate 1, fig. 1, b), near
Kirkcudbright, at Oban (Argyll) in, at least, two sites—
McArthur’s Cave and Drumvaig*, on Oronsay Island,
and elsewhere.
The cradle of this culture is not yet very clearly
1 Probably the culture will also turn up in Galicia, though it has
not yet been noted in Portugal.
1 The finds from these places are in the Museum at Edinburgh.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
14
known and will be considered in conjunction with the
next or Tardenoisean culture. It would seem, however,
that Azilian influence was felt by the Late Magdalenian
folk of the Pyrenees before it had reached the Dordogne.
In other words, Azilian culture either arrived in western
Europe from the south, i.e. Spain, south of the Pyrenees,
or possibly from the south-east. Difficulties arise be-
cause there is as yet so little evidence for the occurrence
of Azilian cultures in Spain south of the Pyrenees or
south of the Cordillera Cantabrica which really form an
extension of the Pyrenees. Again, eastwards, the mouths
of the Rh6ne and the flood lands around must have
proved a barrier that could not have been easily crossed
much lower than the latitude of Nimes without rafts or
canoes, and of these there is no evidence in Azilian
times unless we allow that the English Channel had by
now been formed, in which case the British Azilian folk
must have arrived in our country by boat. All the same,
if a culture did cross the Rhone somewhere about where
the lowest railway bridge over the river exists to-day,
it would still reach the Pyrenees before the Dordogne,
which is separated from the Rh6ne valley by the whole
massif of the central highlands of France.
TARDENOISEAN CULTURE
The Tardenoisean culture introduces a very different
state of affairs. The Azilians, for the most part, lived in
the mouths of caves or in rock shelters, and we generally
find a definite stratigraphy with deposits containing
Palaeolithic industries. But in the case of the Tarde-
noisean deposits there is seldom such clear and definite
stratigraphical sequence. The industries are for the
most part found on or close to the surface, except at
a few sites, as for example at Zonhoven and at the cave
MESOLITHIC TIMES
lS
Remouchamps (6), both in Belgium. The industries
consist of pigmy flints, generally chipped to form geo-
metrical shapes such as the triangle—equilateral, isos-
celes or scalene—little crescents or lunates, and, at a
slightly later date, though not in true Tardenoisean in-
dustries, trapezes (Plate 2, fig. 1). The small pigmyburin
is also common, and it may be remarked that, though its
absence from an industry does not disprove a Tar-
denoisean culture, its presence makes it almost certain1.
As regards the chipping of most of these pigmy flints
it should be noted that it consists in the blunting of the
edge by the removal of small flakes rather than in the
sharpening of it. The working edge of a tool was the
sharp natural flake cutting-edge which is left untrimmed
for use in the completed tool.
Pigmy industries have a very wide distribution, and
in their connection a word of warning must be sounded.
What happened was that mankind discovered the advan-
tages of a composite tool, that is a tool composed of
several elements each of which have their special useful
properties. A flint flake is very sharp and very suitable
for a knife blade or saw tooth, but is very brittle. The
combination, however, of a wooden or bone haft into
which little pigmy flakes are fixed to form either a
1 The term burin or graving tool is perhaps rather a misnomer, as
it is hardly conceivable that this minute tool, sometimes not a centimetre
in length, had much to do with engraving. The fact to emphasise, how-
ever, is the occurrence of the highly specialised and peculiar “burin
technique” so common in Upper Palaeolithic times, which has here
survived and which consists of the removing of a small facets known as
the burin facet, more or less along a side of the tiny flake, starting at
the working edge, a blow being delivered vertically, the flake being
also held vertically. In the case of trimming and most other forms of
flint chipping the blow is delivered vertically but the object is held
horizontally (Plate 23, b, c, i, n, P).
MESOLITHIC TIMES
16
Prometheus:
continuous knife blade or, in the form of irregular teeth,
a kind of saw, is very serviceable. Such a discovery may
have been made at different times in different parts of
the world. But it should be noted that for a composite
tool only certain shapes of little pigmy flakes are con-
venient. A carefully formed square of flint or a circle
would be singularly useless, while the practical properties
of a triangle with one side blunted for convenience of
hafting as shown on page 34 (the blunting preventing
the flake being driven too far into the haft and so splitting
it) can be readily appreciated. Little flakes hafted along
the lengths of bone stems have actually been found in
the peat bogs in Denmark, belonging to another and
doubtless contemporary Transitional culture. The occur-
rence, then, in different sites, of pigmy industries does
not denote either a similarity of culture with that of the
Tardenoisean of Europe and the Mediterranean basin,
nor, of course, contemporaneity. Quite conceivably the
pigmy industries near by in Poland or Southern Russia
may belong to this Tardenoisean culture, but there is
no proof as yet adduced to show that similar pigmy
industries south of the Panjab in India, or others in
Australia, or elsewhere in far distant lands, have any
connection whatever with the Transitional culture we
are describing, or that they are anywhere near this
culture in date (Plate 2, fig. 2). In the special case of
the Obsidian industry found in the district east of the
Victoria Nyanza and near Lake Naivasha (Africa), where
scrapers, knife blades, pigmies, etc., occur, the above
argument does not apply as the burin—absent in India
and Australia—is frequently found. The age of this
industry must be Transitional or even Late Palaeolithic,
Tardenoisean industries are found at one site in the
cave of Valle near Gibajaw (a station on the railway line
Plate %, fig. i. Tardenoisean pigmies from France, Belgium,
Portugal, and the Mediterranean basin.
\SN
1 Inch.
Plate 2, fig. 2. Small industries from far-
off countries. 1-6 Australia, 7 Ceylon,
8-io India.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
MESOLITHIC TIMES
18
from Bilbao to Santander, Spain) associated with little
round scrapers and other Azilian tools including the
harpoon. This fact is important as showing the contem-
poraneity of the Azilian and Tardenoisean industries.
In view of the fact that the Tardenoisean has a much
wider distribution than the Azilian, although of the same
age, it is convenient for many purposes to group the two
together and to talk of an Azilio-Tardenoisean culture.
The distribution of the Tardenoisean culture is im-
portant. It seems to be especially concentrated around the
Mediterranean basin, but westward of the Alpine ranges
it spreads sporadically as far north as England,and east-
wards it is found in the Crimea (a*), in Poland at As-
sowka(I9), etc. and in the south of Russia. At Termini
Imerese(8) in Sicily there has been found a series of tools,
apparently much more recent than those of undoubted
Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian) culture which occur in
the cave of Romanelli (Otranto) and other places. These
Termini Imerese industries are very similar to those
found in the upper beds at the Grotte des Enfants, Men-
tone, which we shall have to consider in connection with
the origin of the Azilio-Tardenoisean culture as a whole.
The same sort of thing is found in Syria and in North
Africa, where the last Capsian (that is the African Aurig-
nacian) shows a decrease in the number of graving tools
but a big increase in geometric microliths, which,
although not especially Azilian in appearance, are typi-
cally Tardenoisean. Various sites in Portugal and in
both North and South Spain1 have yielded typical Tar-
denoisean industries. In Belgium (9> two well-defined
geometric microlithic industries have been observed at
1 It is interesting to note that in a rock shelter near Alpera, covered
with paintings both in the Spanish Art Group II and III styles, was found
a typical geometric-shaped tool.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
19
Zonhoven; the first comes from some depth below the
surface soil, the other from the surface. The former has
not been intermixed with outside material and com-
prises long and round scrapers, gravers, microlith knife
blades and little triangles. The surface industry includes
Neolithic arrow heads and a flint blade the flint of
which must have come from Grand Pressigny, as well
as polished Neolithic axes of a late type. Associated
with these are late Tardenoisean types including the
trapeze. The Belgian cave of Remouchamps (6) has yielded
small round scrapers, gravers and long microliths.
Reindeer bones occur and trapezes are absent. In our
own country a typical Transitional industry is found in
North Cornwall and microliths with the burin are found
at Hastings. On the Pennines near Huddersfield (10)1
rich finds, showing Belgian connections as well as local
variations, have been collected. Pigmy tools occur else-
where at many sites, but the absence of typical imple-
ments, especially of the Tardenoisean burin, precludes
any certainty as to the culture—e.g. the pigmy indus-
tries from most of the Sussex sites, etc.
The origin of the Azilio-Tardenoisean is well seen at
the cave called the Grotte des Enfants near Mentone (u).
Here rich Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian) deposits
have been found undisturbed by the Solutrean and
Magdalenian phases occurring elsewhere. The Aurig-
nacian folk seem to have developed on their own lines,
and their fauna shows us that they existed under the
various changes of climate that elsewhere in France
coincided with the coming of the Solutreans and the
occurrence of the Magdalenian cultures. This Aurig-
nacian culture at Mentone continued its development
1 See chapter vii and Plate 23 for an account of these English
pigmy industries.
20
MESOLITHIC TIMES
undisturbed, and as we observe the evolution of the
shouldered points we note how they get smaller and
smaller, how the scrapers get tinier and tinier, until in
the upper levels we suddenly realise that we are in the
presence of true Azilio-Tardenoisean industries though
without the harpoon, the source and original form of
which is unknown. In other words, there seems very
little doubt that the Azilio-Tardenoisean Transitional
culture as a whole was developed in Europe by the old
Aurignacian (Neoanthropic) stock. The original Aurig-
nacian invader of Europe underwent many modifica-
tions, as is attested by the considerable differences that
exist in the skeleton form in various times. Azilio-
Tardenoisean man seems then to be a modification of
this old stock that took place at the change of climate,
more especially around the Mediterranean coasts, a
stock that continued to survive, undergoing many
further modifications caused by the pressure of the
oncoming Neolithic civilisation, until it finally went
under and Europe passed definitely under the sway of
the New Stone Age.
As in the case of the Azilian culture so in that of the
Tardenoisean nothing has been noted in the way of art,
there are not even such unsatisfying objects as the
“painted pebbles”!
Accounts of several careful burials of peculiar interest
belonging to the Azilio-Tardenoisean culture have been
published. One of the most important of these is a cave
burial at Ofnet in Bavaria (ia>. The section in the cave
shows fallen blocks at the base with dolomitic sand
lying about them; on this sand rests an Aurignacian
layer, then a Solutrean and then an Upper Magda-
lenian; on this latter is found an Azilian layer, which
in turn is covered with Neolithic and recent deposits,
MESOLITHIC TIMES
21
Here two shallow pits or nests that penetrated into, but
of course had nothing to do with, the underlying Mag-
dalenian layer had been excavated in Azilian times. In
these pits or nests a number of human skulls were found
buried with ochre, but without any trace of the skeletons
that belonged to them. In fact, when the base of the
skulls is carefully examined scratchings and cut lines
can be observed, indicating a carefully executed decapi-
tation. The skulls were deposited in these shallow pits
or nests in concentric circles all facing towards the
setting sun. One nest contained as many as twenty-
seven skulls. The heads were those of old women, young
women and young men; it is stated that as a general rule
the heads of the old women had associated with them
many more necklaces and other objects of ornament
than those of the young women, while the men had none.
In one case, that of a child, with the skull were found
hundreds of shells all placed very close together per-
haps by some grieving parent. The associated industries
comprise Azilian implements, though without the har-
poon and Tardenoisean tools. It is important to note
that though long-headed skulls predominate, a number
of round-headed ones also occur and these show the
further peculiarity that while the forehead is only mode-
rately broad, the back of the skull is exceedingly wide.
The occurrence of a round-headed people is of especial
importance but their exact racial affinity is not yet clearly
known. Another Tardenoisean burial containing round-
headed skulls was found in the cave of Furfooz, in the
valley of the Lesse, Belgium. This was discovered by
Dupont in 1867. The industries associated with the
burial rest on a Magdalenian layer; they are typical and
reindeer bones occur. In Belgium, however, the tundra
fauna continued to exist into early Mesolithic times
22
MESOLITHIC TIMES
being contemporary with the stag and forest fauna
further south.
Another burial, apparently of Tardenoisean date, has
been found near the mill called Axpea close to Tres
Puntes, Alava(i3), in the vicinity of Vittoria, Spain. In
this case the burial is under a tumulus, which itself shows
evidence for a certain amount of revetment, and stones
gathered in the vicinity have been heaped together. On
excavation the following section was determined: on the
top was a capping of vegetable earth intermixed with
stones, below which occurred a layer of black earth a
foot or two in thickness, under this was found another
layer of clay full of stones, which rested directly on a
natural limestone bottom. As there was a slight de-
pression in the limestone at the spot chosen by Tarde-
noisean man, the total height of the tumulus above the
general level of the ground was not more than about
a yard. All the archaeological finds came from the black
layer lying between the upper turfy layer and the under-
lying clay with boulders. No complete skulls but a
number of human remains were found, as well as frag-
ments of oxen. Lower jaws of at least five adult indi-
viduals and the fragment of the jaw of a child were
observed. In these jaws there were still a number of teeth.
Besides as many as 159 isolated teeth, some of them from
upper jaws, were found. Flint tools, comprising knife
blades and typical little geometric flints, as well as traces
of ochre, were collected, also little pierced beads made
from fragments of shell. In spite of the fact that one or
two scraps of a sort of vague pottery, of very poor manu-
facture, were also observed, the industries point defi-
nitely to a latish Tardenoisean culture.
Another important site—of late Tardenoisean date,
at earliest, as the trapeze occurs—is in the marshy valley
MESOLITHIC TIMES
23
of Mughem (i4) near the Tagus. There are several tumuli,
the most important being that called Cabejo d’Arruda.
This consists of an oval tumulus 7 metres high built on
ground rising some 5 metres above the level of the
marshy land around; its longer diameter is about 100
metres, its shorter 60 metres. The contents of this hil-
lock include shells, chipped flints, cinders and frag-
ments of stone, as well as human skeletons. The shells,
which are those of Lutraria compressa, Tapes, a small
variety of Cardium, Ostrea, Buccinum, Nucula, Pecten
and Solen, are only found to-day by the salt water far
away. Clearly, then, when the folk lived at Mughem the
sea was there, though to-day it is over twenty-five miles
away and the land has risen considerably. The fauna
includes stag, sheep, horse, pig, and dog, etc.; the
industry, which is poor and rare, consists of small flakes,
pigmies, the trapeze and rough bone awls. A small
pebble pierced for suspension and possibly used as an
ornament was also found. A little very poor pottery
occurred, but only in the top layers of the mound. The
industries, and the fauna alone, might suggest a Kitchen
Midden Age and culture, but the considerable earth
movement that has since taken place would argue for
a slightly earlier, i.e. Tardenoisean, date.
As regards the famous “Grenelle” human remains,
found in the alluvium near Paris in 1870,. no accurate
data as to the find exist, and it is not safe to base any
theory on a find of human remains when the exact age
is quite uncertain. Another burial under tumulus,
where quantities of small pigmies occurred, but this
time associated with cremation, has been described by
L. Abbot as found near Sevenoaks.
24
MESOLITHIC TIMES
ASTURIAN CULTUREds)
The Asturian culture has only comparatively recently
been recognised. It has been so named by its discoverer,
Conde de la Vega del Sella, from the Province in North
Spain where it was first noted, and where its occurrence
is so plentiful. The remains of this culture consist
apparently of kitchen middens or dust-bin rubbish
thrown away into convenient caves, and is formed
mainly of tests of shell-fish, which have been cemented
together by stalagmitic growth into a compact deposit.
A small industry has been determined including a new
type of tool or pick made by roughly pointing a hard
river pebble, but leaving its under-surface entirely un-
trimmed (see Plate i, fig. 2). Smooth, round pebbles,
probably used as rubbers or sometimes as hammer stones,
also occur, as well as a few bone borers and two or three
stag’s tines pierced with a hole, differing from, though
vaguely recalling, a simple form of Palaeolithic “ bSton.”
But in spite of the occurrence—literally in hundreds
—of this new type of tool, the industry of the Asturian
culture is not its most interesting feature. Many of the
caves into which this rubbish was thrown already con-
tained Palaeolithic deposits, and it has thus been possible
to determine accurately the stratigraphical sequence.
The Asturian industries are always resting on, and
therefore younger than, layers containing typical Azilian
tools; it is clear, therefore, that it was only in post-
Azilian times that these masses of shells and rubbish
were thrown into the caves or rock shelters, until they
often became nearly filled up with the material. Sub-
sequent denuding action has in many cases removed the
greater part of this Asturian rubbish, but patches of
midden material adhering to the ceilings and in crannies
MESOLITHIC TIMES
25
high up on the walls of the caves attest the fact that the
original heaps were much greater in volume even than
those that still exist; and when one considers the enor-
mous mass of material still to be seen in such a cave as
La Franca, it is necessary to postulate either a very large
or very greedy population, which is not likely, or the
lapse of a very considerable time during which these
folk were living on shell-fish in North Spain.
As has been said these middens consist mainly of
tests of shell-fish, but the following fauna oS) has been
observed by the Count in the course of his investigations:
Capella rupicapra (chamois)2 Mustela putoris (pole-cat)
Lutra vulgaris (otter) Males iaxus (badger)
Cams vulpes (wolf) Felts catus (wild cat)
Lepus timidus (hare)
The shell-fish are of the following species:
Patella, both medium and small size (very common)
Trochus lineatus (very common)
Cardium edule (very common)
Nassa reticulata (frequent)
Tuberculata atlantica (rare)
Mytilus edulis (rare)
Ostrea edulis (frequent)
Triton nodiferus (frequent)
Echinus (very common)
Cancer pagurus (frequent)
Portunus puber (very common)
Two species of land molluscs, viz.:
Helix nemoralis and Helix arlustorum
FAUNA
Equus caballus (horse)
Sus scrofa (pig)
Capra pyrenaica (izard)1
Bos (ox)
Cervus elaphus (red deer)1
Cervus capreolus (roe deer)
1 Existed in historical times in North Spain.
2 Exists to-day in the Picos de Europa.
26
Prometheus:
MESOLITHIC TIMES
A study of the fauna is important as giving us a clue
to the climatic conditions and possibly to the period to
which this culture should be assigned. It will be noticed
that whereas on the one hand Littorina shells, common
in Palaeolithic deposits, and on the other Mytilus edulis,
common in deposits of true Neolithic or Copper Age,
hardly occur, the typical shell of these Asturian rubbish
heaps is the Trochus. This is very significant, for Littorina
litorea is found to-day in the Atlantic and not in the Medi-
terranean, while the Trochus occurs in both. This latter
shell is therefore a more warmth-loving mollusc than
the Littorina. As to-day both occur in the sea off the
north coast of Spain and the Littorina is not found in the
middens, it follows that the climate of Asturian times was
probably rather warmer than that of Asturias to-day.
Again, the occurrence of a large number of Helix nemo-
ralis shells in the upper layers of the midden would
seem to indicate that damp conditions set in towards
the end of this time. It has been claimed that the climate
during the Kitchen Midden period in Denmark was
also rather warmer than that of the same region to-day,
an indication perhaps of the contemporaneity of the
Asturian and Kitchen Midden cultures. The absence,
however, of the Campignian axe and other tools typical
of the kitchen middens of the Baltic area shows that we
are not by any means dealing with one and the same
culture, and this is further attested by the absence of
pottery or of any kind of domestic animal in the
Asturian remains.
The distribution of this culture has not yet been fully
determined; it certainly occurs eastward of Asturias at
Biarritz and as far away as Catalonia; possibly, also,
there is a hint of it in the north of France.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
27
MAGLEMOSEAN CULTURE
The focus of the Maglemosean culture is undoubt-
edly Denmark and the coasts of the Baltic. Although
isolated finds have been discovered as far south as near
Boulogne, as far east as Finland1 and in south-east
Yorkshire to the west, this culture was distinctly re-
stricted in its distribution.
Danish prehistorians are apt to divide the prehistoric
periods of their country into an Older and a Newer
Stone Age. This is perhaps a little unfortunate, as, to
the average student of Western Europe, the Old Stone
Age refers to Palaeolithic times, and nothing definitely
Palaeolithic has been demonstrated with certainty from
the Baltic areas. Old Stone Age in Denmark refers not
to the Palaeolithic but to Mesolithic industries and
includes the Maglemosean and Shell Mound cultures,
while the Danish New Stone Age comprises everything
post-Shell Mound in date and earlier than the intro-
duction of metal into the country. As this introduction
took place very late in Scandinavia, the Danish New
Stone Age includes cultures that we should class as true
Neolithic, as well as others of rather later date, where,
though the industries are still made of flint and stone,
the culture has been influenced by and coincides in
date with the Copper Age cultures of more favoured
lands elsewhere in Europe, where ores of this metal had
been early discovered.
Before considering the various Mesolithic industries
of the Baltic area, a word or two must be said as to the
geological conditions. During most of the Palaeolithic
Period, except perhaps during the long warm Inter-
1 Also certainly in Poland (19).
MESOLITHIC TIMES
28
Glacial interlude corresponding to Penck’s Mindel-
Riss, Scandinavia, lying so far to the north and com-
prising high mountainous areas, was covered with im-
mense ice sheets. During the last phase of glacial
activity the southern border of this ice sheet ran roughly
through the middle of Mecklenburg and the northern
provinces of Germany, where the remains of its terminal
moraine can still be traced. The presence of this im-
mense ice sheet had profoundly affected the climate of
the area generally; England, especially East Anglia,
was long under its influence, and much of the difficulty
in correlating English Quaternary chronology with that
of areas further south must be attributed to the fact that
the ice sheets of Scandinavia did not allow such small
changes of temperature to manifest themselves as was
the case further south; for, except perhaps during the
Mindel-Riss Inter-Glaciation, East Anglia had little in
the way of warm Inter-Glacial periods. The anti-cyclonic
influence of a great ice mass as far south as Scandinavia
must have been considerable. Again, the weight of
such an ice mass has to be remembered; the earth’s
crust is by no means solid and even to-day Scandinavia
is not a completely stable area. It is demonstrable that
the peninsula is not unlike a gigantic seesaw, the south
sinking, the north rising about a central stable line, and
that this movement is as much as several inches a cen-
tury. With the post-Glacial changes of climate the ice
sheet began rapidly to retreat and the shores of the
Baltic for the first time for many a century lay open for
mankind to inhabit. Owing to the depression in the
earth created by the ice mass, when the ice retreated
from the Baltic area a great sea known as the Yoldia Sea
was exposed, open to the north and to the west by wide
channels connecting it with both the Arctic Ocean and
MESOLITHIC TIMES 29
with what is now the North Sea. But the removal of the
ice pressure rapidly led, through isostatic movements,
to an elevation of the area. The Baltic became a lake,
completely cut off from both the Arctic Ocean and the
North Sea; this lake is known as the Ancylus Lake from
a small shell then abundant therein. It was at this
period that pines were especially numerous, and it is to
this time and just after it that the Maglemosean culture
in question must be assigned. But just as a pendulum
swings so far and then swings back, so the land under-
went another depression which opened a wide channel
from the Ancylus Lake to the North Sea, though it was
not sufficient to reopen any connection with the Arctic
Ocean. The new sea thus formed is named the Littorina
Sea from the abundance of the shell Littorina litorea
therein contained. By now the pine had, for the most
part, been replaced by the oak and the Maglemosean
culture by that of the Kitchen Middens. Thereafter a
further slight elevation took place, but not sufficient to
close the connection with the North Sea, a connection
which, though much reduced, still exists to-day through
the “Belts.” The oak then gave place to the beech and
the birch, and the Shell Mound or Kitchen Midden
industries to those of the true Neolithic and later cul-
tures.
The geologist, therefore, has enabled the prehis-
torian to obtain a fairly definite stratigraphical sequence
for these early Baltic cultures. The presence of the pine,
as well as of Ancylus fauna including the pine partridge,
a bird never found far removed from pine forests, de-
monstrates conclusively the Ancylus Age for the Mag-
lemosean culture, while the occurrence of the Shell
Mound industry in association with the oak at a slightly
later date shows us that this Kitchen Midden culture
MESOLITHIC TIMES
30
must be assigned to the Littorina period1. That the
kitchen middens are later in date than the Maglemosean
finds can be also proved on typological grounds, for
some tool types which were abundant in Maglemosean
times are also found in the lower layers of the shell
mounds or kitchen middens, though not in the upper
layers. They cannot therefore have had their origin in
Shell Mound times and been passed on to a Magle-
mosean folk at a later date.
The earliest evidence for the presence of mankind
in the Baltic area consists of three or four roughly made
bone picks or, more properly speaking, hafts made of
reindeer antler. Unfortunately the finds are isolated
and there is no stratigraphy and but little detail is avail-
able as to the circumstances of their discovery. But as
antler tools of Maglemosean and Kitchen Midden times
are always made of stag’s antler, it is reasonable to pre-
sume that these few examples were left by some earlier
hunters who had drifted up from the south at a time
when the country was hardly yet habitable. Following
on this scanty evidence come the rich finds of Magle-
mosean date, and these in turn are replaced in certain
areas by the culture of the Shell Mounds or Kitchen Mid-
dens. It would seem that the old Maglemosean culture
continued to survive in certain parts of the hinterland
of the Baltic area developing on its own even well into
true Neolithic times, unaffected by contact with the
more highly developed cultures of the coast. It is very
probable that the so-called Arctic culture is nothing
more nor less than the continued development of the
old Maglemosean culture, with possible additions from
the Shell Mound times.
1 In some regions such as Finland the Maglemosean continued to
exist right into the period of the oaks.
MESOLITHIC TIMES 31
The Shell Mound folks under influences from the
south-west developed the idea of the megalithic tombs,
while the so-called “comb pottery” was introduced
from the north-east. The true Neolithic industries then
arose. These will be dealt with in the chapter on the
Northern and Western Areas.
The type station of the Maglemosean Mesolithic
culture is in the Maglemose or great bog of Mullerup,
on the west of the island of Zealand (16).
Another site of very considerable importance has been
discovered in the south of Zealand at Svaerdborg(i7)
where the section is as follows: At the base is found
a thin layer of sand which is covered by shelly mud; on
this shelly mud but under two distinct overlying peat
layers rests the Maglemosean industry, its strati-
graphical position being perfectly definite and clear.
The two overlying peat layers are in their turn covered
by the grass and humus of the modern heath land.
These Zealand heaths are dry in summer but, especially
in their lower areas, tend to become waterlogged in a
wet winter, and correspond closely to some of the drier
Irish bogs. They were evidently formerly lakes which
have been filled in. Thus at Svaerdborg the bottom layers
are of sand and shelly mud, and to-day the site is but
little above sea level. The Maglemosean folk seem to
have lived on the banks of these lakes, or even on rafts
of some sort in the shallow water at the margin.
The Maglemosean industries, in the various sites
1 It is obvious the name Maglemosean or “Great Bogian” given to
this culture is far from sensible. If a type station name must be given
to the culture, it would be much more reasonable to call it Mullerupian.
Still as the name Maglemose has come definitely into the literature of
the subject and prehistorians have learnt to understand what is meant
by it, it would be difficult or well-nigh impossible to introduce any
new term.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
32
which have been excavated, are not absolutely uniform.
For example, Svaerdborg has yielded innumerable small
pigmy tools, whereas only a few examples of them have
come from the type station of Mullcrup itself. When
describing the industry, therefore, it must be remem-
bered that the results of the diggings in various sites are
here combined.
The tools fall readily into two groups: first, those
made from flint, and secondly, those made from bone
or antler. The material used for the latter was generally
obtained from the stag, although elk and roe buck, etc.,
were sometimes used. Shed antlers were usually utilised.
flint tools (Plate 4)
Flint tools include pigmies, scrapers (both core and
on flakes), picks, a small number—not at all typical—
of a tool known as the Campigny axe which is found
abundantly in the kitchen middens and will there be
described.
The pigmies recall those of the Tardenoisean culture
but, as has been said, this is not surprising in view of the
fact that for a composite tool only certain shapes are
really convenient; they include triangles, generally
rather elongated and of scalene form, one short and one
long edge being carefully blunted, the other long edge
being left sharp. The uses and methods of hafting these
little tools will be discussed later. We also have to note
little blunted backs, lunates and blunt-ended flakes with
little notched shoulders. One beautifully made, finely
pointed shoulder point from Holmegaards Mose may be
noted. Nothing particular need be said as to the
scrapers. They are of the usual kind and range from a
rough core and a sort of keel-scraper to fine scrapers on
the end of blades. Round oval scrapers are also found.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
33
Plate 3 (for legend and description, see p. 34)-
B
3
34
MESOLITHIC TIMES
LEGEND AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES 3 AND 4
Plate 3 shows examples of Maglemosean bone tools, often decorated. A typical
harpoon is figured as well as an antler adze or haft—that an adze not an
axe was desired is clear from the direction of the round hafting hole.
Most of the decoration is purely geometric, but that on the bone
spatula to the right of the harpoon probably represents conventionalised
human beings. The two amber figurines alas have no provenance, but
very possibly belong to this Maglemose culture.
Plate 4 shows examples from Svaerdborg. Note, on the left, the pigmy
tools so common at this site, the core below, and alongside it a small
round scraper j on the right the pick, and below it a small edition haftcd
as an adze. The bone tools are important. There is a hafted antler
point, a pierced tooth ornament and a bone point armed along its
sides with small sharp flakes hafted in longitudinal grooves. Such
tools with the flints still in place, attached by a mastic possibly made
from amber, have been found.
The hafting of these pigmy tools—as well as those of the Tardcnoisean
culture—is of interest, and below are two drawings to illustrate how it
was probably done. Naturally the matter is largely conjectural.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
35
Plate 4 (for legend and description, see p. 34).
5-a
MESOLITHIC TIMES
36
The picks resemble the Kitchen Midden or Campigny
picks, though as a rule they are considerably smaller in
size. There is nothing particular to mention in regard
to the simple cores and flakes.
ANTLER AND BONE TOOLS (Plate 3)
The most typical tool of the culture, a small, narrow
harpoon barbed on one side, is contained in this series.
The barbs vary in number from one near the point to
many along one side of the shaft. It is the “type fossil”
of the Maglemosean industries, and does not survive
even in a modified form into Shell Mound or Kitchen
Midden times, except perhaps in one single instance at
Havelse Ros, Kildefjord, where a few harpoons have
been unearthed apparently of very early Kitchen Midden
Age, though with their enormous coarse barbs they have
very little likeness to the slender, beautifully worked
true Maglemosean harpoon. Bone points, occasionally
eyed when they become needles, have been discovered,
as well as various forms of fish hook. The bone points
themselves were doubtless used as awls and are often of
considerable size. They were easily made, a suitable bit
of bone or antler being merely rounded and pointed, no
attempt being made to form anything like a regular
needle. The fish hooks are sometimes V-shaped; some-
times one limb is longer than another, thus (-/)• One
of the most interesting bone tools consists of a bone
point grooved along its length, sometimes only on one
side of the stem, sometimes on both; in these grooves
attached by some suitable mastic, possibly manufactured
from amber, were laid little flint flakes or pigmy tools;
specimens have been actually found with the flints still
in position. They must have made very efficient lance
points or darts, the end of the bone forming the point
MESOLITHIC TIMES
37
and the row of sharp flint flakes giving either a single
or double edge to the weapon. These very delightful
tools survive in the base of the shell mounds, as is proved
by their being found at Kasemose. Bone chisels are of
common occurrence and there is little of importance to
remark about them. They are made on a long bone, the
end of which has been carefully rounded and sharpened.
In some cases they approximate rather to the polishers
or spatulae of Palaeolithic times than to actual
chisels.
The most numerous and perhaps the most character-
istic objects in the Maglemosean industries are the
pierced antler tools and hafts. In general a portion of
antler is chosen, usually about two inches in diameter
and seven or eight inches in length; it is selected from
near the thickened base of an antler, thereby ensuring
considerable strength even when the hole is pierced for
hafting purposes. It is very rare for a piece of antler to
be prepared by being cut off at both ends, and so with-
out a natural thickened base, though this method, on the
other hand, is in common use in the Shell Mound period
of a later date. At this point we must differentiate two
uses: in the first the portion of the antler is itself the
tool, in the second it is only the haft in which a small
stone is inserted as the working edge. In both cases,
however, the antler in question was itself hafted, pos-
sibly on a wooden staff, as is proved by its being pierced
by a more or less rounded hole. It is important to note
the direction of this hole relative to the working edge
either of the antler, when it is itself the tool, or of the
stone hafted into an oval hole scooped out at the end of
the antler. Where the direction of the hole is parallel
to the working edge, the tool, when hafted, is an axe.
Where, on the other hand, the direction of the hole is
MESOLITHIC TIMES
38
at right angles to the working edge, the tool is an adze.
This will be clearly seen on reference to Plates 3 and 4.
It is interesting to note that in Maglemosean times the
adze is a far commoner tool than the axe, while later,
in Shell Mound times, the axe is more frequently
found.
Prometheus:
Animals’ teeth pierced for ornament are not unknown,
and the Maglemosean hunter was not averse to a certain
amount of decoration. His bone tools are often orna-
mented with a series of fine engraved lines and punctua-
tions forming geometric patterns, such as zigzags,
lozenges and the like. More or less naturalistic figures
of animals have been found in Jutland, and in at least
one instance it is interesting to recognise conventionalisa-
tion of the human form as a decorative motif (Plate 3).
Several rough little sculptures of animals carved in
amber have also been collected, and, though there is no
absolute certainty as to their date, Danish prehistorians
are inclined to class them as Maglemosean w. It must
always be remembered that accurate dating is by no
means easy; the Maglemosean industries are found
near the surface, and we are not dealing with a simple
state of affairs, such as a Palaeolithic cave deposit com-
pletely sealed in by stalagmite!
The general distribution of this culture has already
been given, attested by the discovery of the typical har-
poon in the various regions. As regards south-east
Yorkshire, not only were two typical harpoons found, but
also a small stone industry, and it is possible that some
of the apparently early pigmy tools found on the surface
of East Anglia generally will have in the end to be
assigned to this culture.
The origin of the Maglemosean folk remains to a
certain extent a mystery. If we except the one or two
MESOLITHIC TIMES
39
finds of reindeer bone, already mentioned, that seem to
have been left by chance by some still earlier hunter,
Maglemosean man was the first inhabitant of Denmark,
southern Scandinavia, and the Baltic area generally.
Like the Tardenoisean he was aware of the advantages
of a composite tool, but there is no reason for inter-
relating the two cultures. The occurrence of a certain
amount of art might suggest Upper Palaeolithic con-
nections, but, except in one or two instances found in
Jutland, the absence of well-drawn naturalistic figures
would militate against there having been any connection
with the Magdalenians of France. On the other hand,
if we turn to the Upper Palaeolithic of Moravia, a
region where Magdalenian man does not seem to have
penetrated though his influence was undoubtedly felt, we
find an Aurignacian culture developing on its own lines,
contemporary in part with the French Magdalenian
culture but exhibiting a different art which has perhaps
slightly greater affinity to the Maglemosean. Should
future investigations demonstrate that this is the case
we should have to consider the Maglemosean culture
as being a child of the Upper Palaeolithic culture of
eastern and central Europe, driven north-west into the
still inhospitable, but now ice-free, area of the Baltic by
the pressure of the on-coming true Neolithic folk who
were themselves slowly advancing from Central Asia
probably forced thence by the ever-increasing drought
of regions that had previously been so suitable for human
development. It may be noted that industries similar
to the Maglemosean have been recognised in Poland(i«>).
No burials of Maglemosean date have been noted, but
lately some skeletal remains have been found in the
peat, including a lower jaw, said to show Palaeolithic
affinities.
40
MESOLITHIC TIMES
KITCHEN MIDDENSW
Under the old classification Kitchen Middens or
Shell Mounds are described as belonging to the Neo-
lithic Period because a certain amount of pottery is found
in them, and, although other domestic animals are for
the most part absent, the dog is common. However,
actually in the field, it is not easy to distinguish between
the Maglemosean and the Kitchen Midden industries,
and the close affinity that exists between the two cultures
cannot be too strongly urged.
The shell mounds or kitchen middens consist, as
their name implies, of masses of shell-fish and other
kitchen refuse that has been cast aside by man; they are
glorified dust bins. These masses have become cemented
together and form to-day veritable hillocks, often cover-
ing immense areas. They have been known to measure
as much as ioo yards in length by 50 in breadth by
1 yard high. The quantity of shell-fish consumed by
these primitive folk, who seem to have largely subsisted
on this diet, is prodigious. The industries (Plate 5)
obtained from the shell mounds include, as in the case
of the Maglemosean culture, both stone and bone tools,
but in this case we also have a poorly formed pottery
made of an inferior coarse paste. The pots are commonly
cylindrical, with rounded, or sometimes pointed, bases,
and expand slightly at the top to form a rim. The stone
industry includes the typical transverse-edge arrowhead
and the Campigny axe (Plate 5, b or Plate 11, no. 12
and Plate 5, c). The latter is formed on a piece of flint or
split stone pebble by squaring the sides, removing a
large flake at one end and so obtaining a cutting edge
by the intersection of this flake with the flat under-sur-
face of the piece of flint or split pebble. As has been
MESOLITHIC TIMES
4i
of a Shell-mound. From Guden River.
Plate 5. Examples of pottery and tools from the kitchen middens and shell
mounds.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
42
noted, only two or three examples at most, and these
only approximating to this type, have been found among
the Maglemosean industries, but they are very common
in the shell mounds. As always, scrapers, both core and
on flakes, are common, and some very fine examples
made on the ends of blades have been discovered. Neo-
lithic picks are also common (Plate 5, a) and range from
comparatively large examples down to small fine tools,
so beautifully chipped that at first sight they almost
recall Proto-Solutrean laurel leaves. Awls, often of the
Campigny type with irregular trimming up the point,
may be noted, sometimes small in size, sometimes com-
paratively coarse and large. Small fine examples are
sometimes made at the concave or bevelled end of a
blade, thus forming as it were the two horns of a scooped-
out crescent, sometimes the awls are long and medial,
somewhat resembling the base end of a “Font Robert”
point if broken in half. Cores, both small and of im-
mense size—recalling those found at various sites near
Lihge, Belgium—and flakes occur in any quantity, as
well as hammer stones and rough chopping tools. So-
called “fabricators” are not infrequent, as well as little
transverse-edge arrow points with carefully squared
blunted sides, and the trapeze pigmy tool. Polished or
ground tools have not been found, except occasionally
at the extreme top of shell mounds (and therefore at the
very end o'f the period) where a few examples have been
observed doubtless heralding the beginning of the true
New Stone Age of Denmark.
The bone or antler industry, made, as in Magle-
mosean times, mainly from stag’s antler, includes awls
and chisels, and especially the type, already described
under the Maglemosean antler industry, where a portion
of antler is taken, pierced for hafting, and one end pre-
pared either for use itself as a working edge or for the
MESOLITHIC TIMES
43
hafting of a stone tool. In the shell mounds it is the axe
rather than the adze that seems to have been commonly
required, as is attested by the direction of the hafting
hole through the portion of antler relative to the working
edge of the tool. Although, as before, Shell Mound
man usually prepared a portion of antler at the base of
a tine where it thickens, so as to ensure strength for the
hole pierced for hafting, yet we now often find that he
deemed it sufficient merely to cut off a portion of antler
at both ends and to use this for his purpose (compare
on Plate 5, d and e). Front teeth of animals carefully
ground and prepared to form gouges may be noted,
and the very rare survivals into Shell Mound times of
a coarse form of Maglemosean harpoon, as well as of
the bone points fitted with flakes along their sides, has
already been noted. The use of wood for hafting pur-
poses is not only inferred but proved by the actual
finding of examples with the stone tools still attached to
their wooden hafts. Coming to objects of decoration,
etc., we note something of the nature of small combs
from at least one site, as well as a few pendants. Orna-
mentation in the form of a lozenge pattern in fine en-
graved lines has been observed on an antler haft, but art
as a whole is far less common in Shell Mound than in
Maglemosean times. We are dealing with a rich, if
primitive, culture, though mainly that of the hunter.
In spite of the presence of pottery the sickle has not been
found, therefore agriculture, if practised at all, was
extremely rare. Again, domestic animals are repre-
sented almost entirely by the dog, and polished tools
are absent. Perhaps the nearest analogous culture was
that of the Strandloopers of South Africa, who, like
these northern folk, lived mainly near the coast and
subsisted almost entirely on shell-fish.
Burials in the kitchen middens are not unknown.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
44
The body is often found simply laid out full length,
though sometimes it is outlined, as it were, by a few big
stones placed round it at intervals. Nothing in the
nature of careful ceremonial burial has been observed.
A comparison of the Maglemosean and Shell Mound
cultures would not be out of place at this point. It
should be observed in passing that whereas shell mounds
are common in Jutland and rare in Zealand, exactly the
opposite is the case for the Maglemosean industries.
Again, it would appear that Shell Mound folk lived
exclusively by the coasts, whereas this was not neces-
sarily the case with regard to their Maglemosean fore-
runners. It is true that shell mounds are often found
to-day far from the sea shore, but this can be explained
by the fact that the level of the land has changed so that
mounds that once were close to the sea are now far in-
land; in flat areas like Denmark very small changes in
the relative levels of land and sea will cause very great
differences in the position of sites. Perhaps some of the
connections and differences between the two cultures
can be best expressed in condensed form.
The bone points studded longitudinally with flakes that
flourish in the Maglemosean times only just survive into the
base of the shell mounds. On the other hand, the transverse-
edge arrow heads with small square blunted sides appear very
rarely, or not at all, in the earlier industry, but flourish in Shell
Mound industries and even survive into true Neolithic times.
Again, the adze is common in the Maglemosean tools and the
axe considerably rarer, whereas in Shell Mound times the exact
opposite is the case, the axe being by far the more usual tool.
Antler hafts, cut off at both ends, as already described, are ex-
tremely rare in Maglemosean sites, though this was a common
mode of preparing the tool among the Shell Mound folk. Then
the typical Maglemosean harpoon disappears with this culture
and, practically speaking, no harpoon of this kind is found in
MESOLITHIC TIMES
45
the kitchen middens. Finally the trapeze form of pigmy tool
only appears with the coming of the Shell Mound culture,
though it survives well into true Neolithic times.
Enough has been said to show that these two cultures
are distinct, although there is a close affinity between
them, and for anyone who has studied the two on the
spot it is impossible to separate them as belonging to
two totally different civilisations.
An industry, said to be of intermediate type and date,
has lately been recognised near Gothenburg in south-
western Sweden, and certain pigmy finds—though
including trapezes—from by the Guden River in Jut-
land also seem to belong to a very late Maglemosean
stage of culture in course of transition to Shell Mound
types.
The extent of the Kitchen Midden culture is not
easy to determine with certainty, as, though different,
there seems to be close connection between it and the
Campignian of Western Europe, which it will be our
next business briefly to describe. The origin of the Shell
Mound culture is also unknown, although one might
perhaps hazard a guess that the Maglemosean on the
one hand and the Campignian on the other both had
a share in its formation.
An allied culture, doubtless derived from the same
stock as that of the shell mounds, occurs in Norway.
It survived late, there being admixture with polished
celts. Rock rather than flint is preferred for toolmaking.
The name Nostvet—a site near Oslo—has been sug-
gested for this culture.
CAMPIGNIAN CULTURE
The Campignian is another of these Mesolithic cul-
tures that, under the old classification, was classed as
MESOLITHIC TIMES
46
early Neolithic owing to the presence of coarse pottery
and a few rare examples of domesticated animalsx.
The type stations of Campigny are to be found near
the little town of Blangy-sur-Bresle, not far from
Bouillancourt-en-Sery in the Department of the Seine-
Inferieure(2i). The site consists of a number of land
habitations in the form offonds de cabanes 2. The pits are
oval in shape and vary in size, being sometimes as much
as 5 yards in the longer diameter. The following section
is vouched for by M. Capitan. At the base a clayey
chalk, above which occur gravels containing mammoth
bones. The huts are hollowed in this gravel and at the
bottom of them were found the cinders and charcoal of
a Campignian hearth. Above these cinders was a yellow
sandy loam infilling, containing Campignian tools. On
the top was modern humus containing, it is stated, a few
polished stone tools. Should the section really be as here
given, it will be noted that the Campignian is strati-
graphically post-Quaternary and earlier than the true
Neolithic, as attested by the presence of polished stone
tools in the overlying humus. The industries themselves
comprise the Campignian axe already described, as well
as the pick and transverse-edge arrow head. There are
1 A number of prehistorians are rather inclined to-day to claim that
the original excavation at Campigny was not well done and that no
proofs for the existence of a separate early culture at this spot can be
made out. This is largely due to the late M. de Morgan, who claimed
to have found a polished celt in a hearth—doubtless derived from the
overlying Neolithic humus! The tools collected at Campigny and the
similar industries found in Belgium, France and elsewhere resemble
those found in the shell mounds, and it is hardly wise to summarily deny
the existence of this Mesolithic culture. All Campigny industries, how-
ever, are not of the same age, survivals occur showing admixture with
more recent objects.
1 For description of fonds de cabanes see chapter 111.
MESOLITHIC TIMES
47
also rough awls, scrapers, flakes, cores, etc. The rare
finds of one or two burin-like tools probably indicate
a reminiscence of older Palaeolithic times. The fauna
at Campigny consisted only of fragments and species are
difficult to determine, but the ox, the horse, and the stag
have been recognised. The charcoal was examined and
included identifiable remains of oak and ash, as well as
remains of other trees that could not be determined.
Taking the Campignian axe (Plate 5, c) as the type tool,
with perhaps also the large rough awl and the roughly
made pick, the absence of any polished industry or well
made pottery being also a characteristic, the existence
of this Campignian Mesolithic culture can be demon-
strated over large areas of north-western Europe. The
culture was common in Belgium, probably also in our
own country, as well as in the north of France. Further
south in the Mediterranean basin the Campignian is not
so common, because that district is nearer the focus of
the older Tardenoisean culture, which culture seems to
have persisted with little change, except for the intro-
duction of the trapeze and the disappearance of the
burin, until true Neolithic times.
Mesolithic times as a whole are perhaps rather un-
progressive and present scenes of primitive culture little
relieved by either wealth of industries or beauty of art.
But with the arrival of the Neolithic civilisation among
these primitive people a sudden change took place and
cultures containing the germs of many modern develop-
ments soon grew up and progressed rapidly.
48
MESOLITHIC TIMES
BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES
(1) E. Piette, Many articles in L9Anthropologic round about 1895
deal with, his various Pyrenaean excavations. But one of the
best sections at Mas d’Azil that he describes appeared in 1892,
Assoc.fr. pour Pav. des Sc., Congrls de Pau.
(2) R. Munro. For an excellent brief account of the Scottish Mesolithic
sites, see Prehistoric Britain (Home University Series).
A. H. BrsHOP. “An Oronsay shell-mound....1” Proc. Soc. of Antiq.
of Scotland, vol. XLvm.
(3) M. C. Burkitt. An illustration of these paintings can be seen in
the Presidential Address to the Prehistoric Society of East
Anglia for 1925. Vol. v, pt 1.
(4) M. H. Muller. “Une station pateolithique en plein Vercors,
Tunnel de Bobache (Drdme).” Assoc. Jr. pour Pav. des Sc.,
Congtis de Reims, 1907.
----- “Nouvelles fouihes k la station pateolithique de Bobache
(Vercors) ” Soc. d’Anth. de Lyon, 5 Nov. 1910.
(5) F. Sarasin. “Die steinzeitlichen stationen des Birstales zwischen
Basel und Delsberg.” Nouveaux Mdmoires de la SocUti
Relvitique des Sciences Nature lies. Vol. liv, 1918.
(6) E. Rahir. UHabitat tardenoisien des Grottes de Remouchamps.
1921.
(7) H. Breuil and H. Obermaier. “Les premiers travaux de Pln-
stitut de Pateontologie humaine ” VAnthropologic, tome xxm,
1912.
(8) G. Patiri. VArte Minuscula paleolitica delP officina Termttana
nella grotta del Gastello in Termini-Interese. 1910.
(9) L. Lequeux. For the best account of the Belgian Mesolithic
industries see: “Stations tardenoisiennes des vallees del’Ambl&ve,
de la Vesdre et de FOurthe,” Communication made to the
Soc. d’Anth. de Bruxelles, 4 March 1923; “Emplacements
d’habitations tardenoisiennes et objets n^olithiques d^couverts
k Langerloo,” ibid., 26 March 1923; “Industrie tardenoisienne
k Cailloux routes de Vossem (Brabant),” ibid., 28 May 1923.
The preliistoric site at Zonhoven is described in a short work
by M. de Puydt and others called Milanges d*Archdologie
prihistorique and published at Ltege.
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