Topic: Nordic - Eddic Mythology

[Prometheus]

https://archive.org/details/mythologyofallra21gray



THE MYTHOLOGY OF ALL RACES


Volume II

EDDIC  NORDIC


PLATE I


Wayland Smith’s Cave or Forge

Wayland Smith is the Volund of the Eddie poem
V olundarkvitha. The Volund story had its origin

among the Saxon tribes, but spread all over the Teu-
tonic area. It was known to the Anglo-Saxons, and
‘ Welandes Smiththan ’ is mentioned in a document
dating from a few years before the Norman Conquest.
The name had been given to the remains of a cham-
bered tumulus or ‘Long Barrow’ (or, as some re-
gard it, a chambered dolmen) at Ashbury, Berkshire.
For the legend connected with this, see p. 271, and
Sir W. -Scott’s Kenilworth , chapter xiii and note 2.
The Anglo-Saxon poem, Deor's Lament, refers to
the Volund story, and in a document of the year
903 a.d. mention is made of a place in Buckingham-
shire called ‘ Welandes Stocc.’ The phrase ‘ Welan-
des geweorc ’ was also used by the Anglo-Saxons to
denote weapons and ornaments of exceptional value.















THE MYTHOLOGY
OF ALL RACES

IN THIRTEEN VOLUMES

CANON JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH, D.D., Editor
GEORGE FOOT MOORE, A.M., D.D., LL.D., Consulting Editor


EDDIC

BY

JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH

HON. D.D., ST. ANDREWS


VOLUME II



ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
MARSHALL JONES COMPANY • BOSTON
M DCCCC XXX


Copyright, 1930
By Marshall Jones Company

Copyrighted in Great Britain


All rights reserved

Printed February 1930


PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
THE PLIMPTON PRESS • NORWOOD • MASSACHUSETTS


TO MY WIFE


15380



CONTENTS


PAGE

Author’s Preface xi

Introduction 3

Chapter I The Gods: A General Survey 15

II The Vanir 25

III Euhemerism 31

IV The Greater Gods — Odin 37

V The Greater Gods — Thor 68

VI The Greater Gods — Tyr 97

VII The Vanir Group — Njord 101

VIII The Vanir Group — Frey 108

IX The Vanir Group — Freyja 120

X Balder 127

XI Loki 139

XII Lesser Gods 151

XIII Mimir 167

XIV AIgir 171

XV Frigg 174

XVI Lesser Goddesses 178

XVII Ran 190

XVIII Nature 192

XIX Animals 216

XX The Alfar or Elves 219

XXI VyETTIR 228

XXII The Fylgja 233

XXIII The Norns 238

XXIV Valkyries 248


15380


viii CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter XXV Swan-maidens 258

XXVI Dwarfs 264

XXVII Giants 275

XXVIII Trolls 285

XXIX The Nightmare Spirit 288

XXX Werwolves 291

XXXI Magic 295

XXXII The Other World 303

XXXIII Cosmogony and the Doom of the Gods . 324

Notes 349

Bibliography 387


ILLUSTRATIONS


PLATE FACING PAGE

I Wayland Smith’s Cave — Coloured . . Frontisfiece

II Borg in Iceland 4

III The Three Odins and Gangleri 12

IV The Golden Horns 16

V Details of the Larger Horn 22

VI Details of the Smaller Horn 32

VII Odin 46

VIII Swedish Grave-stone 60

IX Representations of Thor 68

X Thor and the Midgard-serpent 76

XI Thor’s Hammer Amulets 84

XII Altar to Mars Thingsus 98

XIII Scenes from the Larger Golden Horn 106

XIV Frey 114

XV Ancient Wagon 122

XVI The Oseberg Ship 130

XVII Sculptured Stone from Gotland 138

XVIII Loki and Sigyn 146

XIX Heimdall 152

XX Bronze Trumpet 160

XXI Vidarr 168

XXII Images and Grave-plate 176

XXIII Icelandic Temple 184

XXIV Sun Symbols 196

XXV Sun Carriage 198

XXVI Sun Symbol 200

XXVII Rock-carvings and Bronze Razors 204

XXVIII Sea-giantess 210

XXIX Wolf-headed Monster 218

XXX Carved Post from the Oseberg Ship 230

XXXI Runic Stone and Gundestrupp Silver Bowl .... 238

XXXII The Gundestrupp Bowl 246

XXXIII Ritual Vessel on Wheels 254

ix


X


ILLUSTRATIONS


PLATE FACING PAGE

XXXIV The Franks’ Casket 266

XXXV The Franks’ Casket 272

XXXVI Runic Monument with Troll-wife 286

XXXVII Spear-head, Sword, and Bear’s Tooth 296

XXXVIII Entrance to a Giant’s Chamber — Coloured . . . 306

XXXIX Bronze Age Barrow 310

XL Helga-fell and Sacred Birch-tree 316

XLI Holy Well and Royal Barrows 320

XLII The Bewcastle Cross 324

XLIII Detailed Carving on the Bewcastle Cross .... 326

XLIV The Ruthwell Cross 332

XLV The Dearham Cross 336

XL VI Magic Symbols: Detail from the Smaller Golden

Horn 338

XLVII Anglo-Saxon Draughtsmen 346


PREFACE


W HEN this Series was first projected, Professor Axel
Olrik, Ph. D., of the University of Copenhagen, was
asked to write the volume on Eddie Mythology, and no one
more competent than he could have been chosen. He agreed
to undertake the work, but his lamented death occurred before
he had done more than sketch a plan and write a small part of it.

Ultimately it was decided that I should write the volume,
and the result is now before the reader.

Throughout the book, the names of gods, heroes, and places
are generally given without accents, which are meaningless to
most readers, and the spelling of such names is mainly that
which accords most nearly with the Old Norse pronunciation.
£ Odin,’ however, is preferred to the less usual £ Othin,’ and
so with a few other familiar names, the spelling of which is now
stereotyped in English.

Several of the illustrations are from material which had been
collected by Professor Olrik, with which the publisher supplied
me. The coloured illustrations and those in pen and ink draw-
ing are by my daughter. I have to thank the authorities of the
British Museum for permission to use their photographs of the
Franks’ Casket and of Anglo-Saxon draughtsmen; the Director
of the Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, for photographs of
the Oseberg Ship; Mr. W. G. Collingwood, F.S.A., for per-
mission to reproduce his sketches of Borg and Helga-fell; and
Professor G. Baldwin Brown, LL.D., of the Chair of Fine Art,
University of Edinburgh, for photographs of the Dearham,
Bewcastle, and Ruthwell Crosses.

J. A. MacCULLOCH

The Bridge of Allan
Scotland
October 8, 1929




EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


BY


JOHN ARNOTT MacCULLOCH






INTRODUCTION


T HE Teutonic peoples in the early centuries of our era were
found over a considerable part of central Europe, north
of the Rhine and the Danube. They also stretched farther
northwards and had occupied Denmark and a great part of the
Scandinavian peninsula from prehistoric times. In the fifth
century began those movements of the Teutonic tribes which
led to their occupation of the Roman empire. Ethnology
divides the Teutons into three groups — the High Germans in
middle and upper Germany, Switzerland, and Austria 5 the Low
Germans, including the North Germans, Flemings, Dutch,
Frisians, and Anglo-Saxons; and the Scandinavians of Den-
mark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland.

The religious beliefs of this widespread people are known to
us imperfectly, and while all of them must have had a common
religious heritage, one of the chief problems of religion and
mythology is to decide how far all the various tribes had the
same deities, the same beliefs and customs, the same myths.
Very different views are advocated as solutions of this problem.
What is known from classical observers regarding Teutonic reli-
gion, from archaeological remains, from notices in the lives and
writings of Christian missionaries, from survivals in folk-
custom and folk-belief, from ecclesiastical laws, is of the high-
est importance. From these sources we gather that, on many
matters, there was much similarity of belief and practice, but
there are many others on which it is impossible to come to a
definite conclusion.

While we may speak within limits of Teutonic mythology,
strict exactitude should rather speak of Eddie mythology — the
myths found in the Eddas , for detailed myths can hardly be


4


INTRODUCTION


said to have survived elsewhere. These myths belong to Ice-
land and Norway, possibly also to Sweden and Denmark. How
far any of them belonged to other branches of the Teutonic
people is a matter of conjecture. Here and there we have cer-
tain lines of evidence which suggest a common heritage of myth.
Certain myths, however, belong solely to the Scandinavian
regions where the Eddie material was native, just as do also
the beliefs in certain gods and goddesses.

The purpose of this book is to give an account of Eddie
mythology, showing wherever possible its connexions with that
of other branches of the Teutonic stock.

What, then, are the Eddas, and where and when were they
composed?

According to one manuscript of a work composed by Snorri
Sturluson (1178—1241), which came into possession of Bryn-
jolf Sveinsson, bishop of Skalholt in the seventeenth century,
the work itself is called ‘ Eddad It deals, as we shall see, with
Norse mythology. Sveinsson was also owner of a manuscript
containing poems, many of which were cited by Snorri and
used by him in compiling his work. From this connexion these
poems now came to be called Edda or ‘ the Elder Edda / in
distinction from the prose work which was styled ‘ the Younger
Eddad The collection of poems was also called Scemundar
Edda , from the belief that they were the work of Ssemund the
Wise, an Icelandic priest and collector of old poetry, who lived
in the second half of the eleventh century and died in 1133 a.d.
It is now generally known as ‘ the Poetic Eddad

Different derivations of the word Edda have been suggested.
By many scholars it is now conceded that the word is the genitive
of ‘ Oddi the name of a homestead in Iceland, which was a
seat of learning, and where Snorri was educated and lived for
many years, and where Ssemund had also dwelt for some time,
if tradition speaks true. Hence Snorri’s book would be ‘ of
Oddi ’ or ‘ the book of Oddi.’ Another derivation much
favoured is that Edda is from opr, ‘song,’ ‘poem,’ and that



PLATE II


Borg in Iceland

Borg, Iceland, the home of the poet Egil Skalla-
grimsson and of Snorri Sturluson, author of the Prose
Edda (see p. 4). The farm of the same name is in
the centre of the picture. In the foreground is the
family tomb, partly destroyed, where Egil in his poem
saw Hel stand and wait his coming. From W. G.
Collingwood’s Sagasteads 0} Iceland.




INTRODUCTION


5

the title, as given to Snorri’s work, signified its contents and their
purpose, viz., £ Poetics ’ or £ treatise of Poetics.’

Snorri Sturluson was one of the most learned men of his
time — a historian, a lover of poetry, of antiquities, of the tradi-
tions of the past, an able and gifted writer. His position in Ice-
land was one of great influence, and eventually he became chief
judge and president of the legislative assembly there. He
wrote or composed the Heimskringla — a series of sagas or
stories of the lives of the kings of Norway down to 1177. The
first part of the work, the Ynglinga-saga , is based on the old
poem Ynglinga-tal , and shows how Odin and other deities were
kings and chiefs, and how the Norwegian kings were descended
from the Ynglings at Upsala. Snorri’s Edda is justly styled
£ a manual of Poetics.’ There had developed in the North not
only special rules for the composition of poetry but a special
poetic language. In the latter innumerable periphrases or
£ kennings ’ ( kenningur ) had come into use, and without them
poetry was now little thought of. Fortunately the poems of the
Poetic Edda are remarkably free of such kennings, and in many
other ways differ from the poetry of the skalds or court poets.
The following examples of kennings may be given — battle
was £ storm of Odin ’j a ship was £ steed of the billows ’j the
earth was £ flesh of Ymir ’j gold was £ Sif’s hair.’ Thousands
of such kennings, many of them even more elaborate than these,
and mostly based on the old pagan mythology, were in use in
the composition of verse. Obviously a knowledge of kennings
demanded much study and implied a wide acquaintance with
mythology. To give to young poets a full account of the
old myths and to illustrate the kennings enumerated from the
verses of other skalds, was Snorri’s purpose in compiling his
Edda.

It consists of three parts. The first of these, Gyljaginning ,
£ Beguiling of Gylfi,’ is a methodical account of the old gods and
goddesses, the myths in which some of them figure, the cosmog-
ony, and the final Doom of the gods. It is written with much


6


INTRODUCTION


liveliness, spirit, humour, and pathos, and it is a wonderful
monument of medieval literature. The name of this section of
the work is due to the framework in which it is set. Gylfi was
king of Sweden, wise and skilled in cunning and magic. He
wondered whether the Aisir or gods were so cunning by nature
or whether this was a gift from the powers which they wor-
shipped. It should be observed that here and elsewhere in
Snorri’s Edda , though not uniformly, as also in a Prologue to
the work, he adopts the euhemeristic theory of the gods — they
were mortal kings, magicians and the like. Gylfi, in the form
of an old man called Gangleri, set out for Asgard, the seat of the
gods. The yTisir, knowing who he really was and foreseeing his
coming, prepared deceptions for him. He arrived and was well
received, and was presented to three lords who sat on as many
seats, one above the other. Their names were Har, 4 High,’
Jafnhar, 4 Equally High,’ and Thridi, 4 Third’ — all forms of
Odin. Gylfi now began his questions. The answers are the
myths of which Gyljaginning is full. When all had been re-
counted, Gylfi heard great noises, and, looking round, found
himself out of doors on a level plain. Hall and castle and Aisir
had vanished. He had been deceived by glamour.

In this part of his book Snorri uses some of the Eddie
poems — Volusia, Grimnismal , V ajthrudnismal , with occa-
sional use of four others. These he sometimes expands in reduc-
ing them to prose. He also uses poems of an Eddie character
now lost, save for fragments quoted by him, poems by the court
poets, and, in all likelihood, much oral tradition. The result is
a full and systematic account of Norse mythology as it was pos-
sible to reconstruct it in Snorri’s day.

The second part, the Skaldska-parmal, 4 Poetry of skalds,’ is
preceded by the Bragarcedur — an account of the origin of the
poetic mead, told by Bragi to Aigir, also a visitor to Asgard and
the vEisir. In the Skaldskaparmal , by means of innumerable
quotations from skaldic verse, the use of kennings for many sub-
jects is shown. Much of it deals with the gods and several


INTRODUCTION


7

myths are told. An example of the method used may be cited.
‘ How should one periphrase Njord? By calling him God of
the Vanir, Kinsman of the Vanir, Van, Father of Frey and
Freyja, God of wealth-giving.’ Then follows a verse by a
skald illustrating some of these kennings.

The third part, the Hattatal , 1 Enumeration of Metres,’ con-
tains three songs of praise in which each of over a hundred
stanzas is in a different metre, the oldest kinds being given last.
Between them are definitions, comments and notes.

It may seem strange that, in a Christian age, Snorri should
have composed a work full of pagan myths, regarded from a
fairly tolerant point of view. But his enthusiasm as a lover of
the past, an antiquary, a folk-lorist, and a poet, explains much.
If there were objectors to this telling of heathen lore, the pur-
pose of it — the guidance of youthful poets and the preservation
of the glories of poetic tradition — would serve as its best
apology in a cultured age.

The manuscript of the Poetic Edda owned by Sveinsson had
been written c. 1300. It is now known as Codex Regius and is
in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. It contains twenty-nine
poems. Another manuscript in the Arnamagnasan collection at
Copenhagen has six of the poems of Codex Regius and a sev-
enth, Baldrs Draumar , which the latter lacks. Other manu-
scripts contain four poems now included in the Eddie collection
— Rigsthula , Hyndluljod , and Svipdagsmal , which consists of
two poems, Grougaldr and F jolsvinnsmal. Another poem,
Grottasongr , given in Snorri’s Edda , is usually joined with
these. Thus the Poetic Edda consists of thirty-four poems.
Almost certainly many other poems of a similar kind and differ-
ing from the poetry current in Norway must have existed, but
are now lost. A few fragments of such poems are found in
Snorri’s Edda. What we do possess is a collection of mythical
and heroic poems, which, taken together with Snorri’s work,
give us a connected though far from complete view of Norse
mythology and heroic legend. Such collections of poems as are


8


INTRODUCTION


found in the Edda must have been made previous to 1300 a.d.
and most probably in Iceland.

Iceland had been colonized from Norway in the ninth century
as a result of Harold the Fair-haired’s victory over the Norse
nobles, which gave him rule over the whole land. In Iceland
there grew up a vigorous civilization and intellectual life, which
was abundantly fostered by the links with the world overseas,
through the roving habits of the Icelanders. This manifold life
was enhanced by the coming of Christianity to Iceland. The
Scandinavian peoples had remained outside the Christian fold
long after the conversion of the other Teutonic peoples, though
not unaffected by currents from Christian civilization. Den-
mark received Christianity in the tenth century ; from there it
passed to Sweden and by 1075 was firmly established there.
Norway was Christianized during the tenth and eleventh cen-
turies, and in the same period Iceland also became Christian.

Very different opinions are held regarding the date and place
of composition of the Eddie poems. Probably many of them
belong to the pagan period, i.e., before 1000 a . d . None of them
were composed before 800 a . d ., and only a few belong to so
late a time as the twelfth century. The bulk of the mythological
poems, i.e., those dealing with the divinities, were composed
before 1000 a . d . Some scholars believe that the poems were
written by Norsemen in the Western Isles of Britain and under
Celtic influences, or, like Sophus Bugge, that the bulk of them
are based on tales and poems heard by the Norsemen from
Irishmen and Englishmen, and that these poems and tales were
in turn based on Graeco-Roman myths and Jewish-Christian
legends. 1 Others hold that Norway was their place of origin.
Others, again, maintain that they were Icelandic, part of the
product of the busy intellectual life of that island. It is quite
possible that both Norway and Iceland shared in their produc-
tion. Two of the heroic poems, Atlamal and Atlakvitha were
ascribed to Greenland in the thirteenth century manuscript.
The authors of the Eddie poems are quite unknown.

[Prometheus]

INTRODUCTION


9

The poems are divided into two groups, mythological (stories
in which the divinities are the chief personages) and heroic.
The former are almost certainly based on native traditions
regarding the gods. On the other hand the material of the
heroic poems is not Scandinavian, but was carried to Norway
from Denmark and Germany, and freely worked upon by
the poets. One peculiarity of the Eddie poems is that they
are not descriptive: only here and there a prose insertion
explains the situation. Mostly they are in dialogue form,
and the narrative is mirrored in the speeches of the protago-
nists. Many explanations of this have been put forward. The
most recent is that of Miss B. S. Phillpotts who maintains
that many of the poems were folk-dramas, the action of the
actors serving instead of explanatory narrative, while knowledge
of the story of the drama would be presupposed . 2

Of the mythological poems Volusia stands first. It is spoken
by a Volva or seeress, perhaps one raised from the dead for that
purpose by Odin, whom she seems to address. She gives an ac-
count of the origin of the world, of men, of dwarfs ; of the early
days of the gods ; and then passes on to a prophecy of the Doom
of the gods, preceded by the death of Balder. The poem is
impressive, though its meaning is occasionally obscure, and it
seems probable that a much shorter original poem was added to
and edited at different times . 3

In certain poems Odin figures prominently. Vajthrudnismal
tells of his questions to the giant Vafthrudnir, the answers form-
ing a kind of cosmogonic encyclopaedia. Grimnismal is of the
same character, though here Odin himself as Grimnir, set be-
tween two fires by king Geirrod, gives the information to
Geirrod’s son, Agnar, and in the end vanishes, while king
Geirrod dies on his own sword. In Baldrs Draumar ( £ Balder’s
Dreams ’), we see Odin descending to the Underworld to rouse
a dead sibyl in order that she may explain Balder’s evil dreams.
Havamal is a compound of several poems, in two of which
ethical advice or proverbial wisdom is given, presumably by


IO


INTRODUCTION


Odin. The poem also tells of Odin and the daughter of Billing,
of his obtaining the poetic mead from Gunnlod, a giant’s daugh-
ter, and of his gaining runes.

In other poems Thor is the chief protagonist. Hymiskvitha
tells how he sought a huge kettle from the giant Hymir, and
how he caught the Midgard-serpent when fishing with the
giant. In Thrymskvitha Thor, disguised as Freyja, whom the
giant Thrym desires as his wife, deceives the giant and slays him
with his hammer, which the giant had stolen. Alvissmal tells
how the dwarf Alviss desired Thor’s daughter as his wife. Thor
demanded that he should recite the various names given to dif-
ferent objects by gods, elves, giants, dwarfs, men, etc., and thus
kept him talking till sunrise which is fatal to dwarfs. In Loka-
senna , though Loki is the chief speaker, Thor appears towards
the end of the poem and forces him to cease his slanders against
the gods and goddesses.

Both Thor and Odin (as Harbard) figure in Harbardsljod.
The poem is a 1 flyting ’ or abusive dialogue between the gods,
who boast of their exploits and threaten each other, Thor being
ignorant that his opponent is Odin . 4

Skirnismal is the story of Frey’s passion for the giantess
Gerd and tells how his servant Skirnir was sent to seek her for
the god.

In Hyndluljod Freyja, mounted on a boar (her lover Ottarr
in disguise), seeks the wisdom of the seeress Hyndla to learn
the descent of Ottarr. This poem contains a fragment of a cos-
mogonic poem known as c the short Voluspa.’

Rigsthula tells how the god Heimdall or Rig came to earth
and begat the first thrall, the first karl or peasant, and the first
jarl or warrior-noble. From the last there ultimately comes
one who is a future king. The poem is thus one in praise of
kingship, and for that reason is probably of Norwegian origin,
though composed by one who had picked up much Celtic speech
and culture.

Svipdagsmal consists of two parts — Grougaldr or ‘ Groa’s


INTRODUCTION


1 1


spell,’ and F jolsvinnsmal. In the first, Svipdag rouses his dead
mother in order that she may aid him in his quest of Menglod,
set him by his hostile step-mother. In the second we follow him
on the quest and listen to the dialogue between him and the
giant guardian of Menglod’s dwelling. In this there is much
mythological information.

The heroic poems, with the exception of V olundarkvitha and
the three Helgi poems, are concerned with the Volsungs and
particularly with Sigurd, the German Siegfried.

V olundarkvitha consists of two poems about Volund joined
together. The first is a Swan-maiden story 5 the second deals
with Volund in the power of King Nithud and his escape and
revenge. Volund is Weyland the smith of English tradition,
and the subject of the poem is of German origin. The stories
must have passed from the Saxon region to Scandinavia.

The Helgi poems are based on Danish originals, Helgi hav-
ing been a Danish hero. In Helgakvitha Hjorvardssonar
Helgi is regarded as a different personage from the Helgi of
the two Helgakvitha Hundingshana poems. Both, however, are
the same traditional personage, and the prose annotation of the
poems makes one a rebirth apparently of the other. The poems
tell the adventures of the heroes, chiefly in avenging their
fathers, and their love of Valkyries who are also daughters of
men (Svava, Sigrun).

The remainder of the poems, sixteen in number, are devoted
to various episodes of the story of the Volsungs.

Some of the poems of the skalds of the ninth and tenth cen-
turies deal with mythological subjects and contain references
to the deities or to myths about them. The authors of these
poems, as distinct from the Eddie poems, are known to us by
name. A convenient collection of these, with text and transla-
tion, will be found in the Corpus Poeticum Boreale of G. Vig-
fusson and Frederick York Powell.

From the Icelandic Sagas much information regarding reli-
gion and folk-lore is derived. These Sagas are stories of a his-


12


INTRODUCTION


torical or biographical kind, though history and biography are
often fictitious. Before they assumed written form from the
mid-twelfth century onwards, Sagas had formed a favourite
entertainment at festive gatherings, told orally by a skilled
story-teller . 6

Another source of information is the Gesta Danorum or His-
toria Danica of Saxo Grammaticus, especially the first nine
books. Saxo was a Danish scholar living in the twelfth cen-
tury, and he has incorporated in his work both Danish and Norse
materials — sagas, history, poems, and myths. Where myths
of the gods are concerned, Saxo regards these deities from a
euhemeristic point of view, as we shall see presently.

For Teutonic religion in general the sources are wider, but
contain little regarding mythology. The classical writers, espe-
cially Tacitus in his Germania and Annales , are first. Inscrip-
tions with names of deities from altars and other monuments in
the Romano-German area supply some information. There are
also many scattered notices in ecclesiastical and other writings,
Lives of Saints, and Histories, e.g., those of Bede or Gregory of
Tours. Laws, secular and ecclesiastical, canons of Councils and
Synods, the Penitentials, as well as passages of sermons, yield
abundant evidence regarding surviving pagan customs and be-
liefs. Place and personal names, names of plants and the like,
have also been found significant. And, in general, folk-customs,
folk-lore, and folk-stories, if critically regarded, can be used as
sources of information regarding the distant past.

Although the chief if not the only source for mythology is
contained in the Eddas , it is impossible to treat the subject with-
out reference to what is known or can be deduced regarding the
beliefs of the Teutonic people outside Scandinavia. Taking
the myths themselves, some are nature myths, and the mean-
ing of a few, at least, lies on the surface. Many writers on
the subject of Eddie mythology have been tempted to give
elaborate explanations of all the myths in terms of natural phe-
nomena. Each writer treats a myth according to his own













PLATE III


The Three Odins and Gangleri

The Three Odins (Har, Jafnhar, and Thridi)
questioned by Gangleri. See p. 6. From a MS of
Snorri’s Edda.







INTRODUCTION


i3

predilections. We cannot be certain that the old myths had any
of the meanings assigned to them, certainly they could not have
had all of these, and such writers do not seem to have seen that
they themselves are modern mythologizers, elaborating a com-
plicated mythology of their own upon the stories of the past.







EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


CHAPTER I

THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY

A STANZA of the short V olusfa in Hyndluljod (30) says
that eleven of the gods remained when Balder’s corpse
was laid on the funeral pyre. Snorri also says that the number
of the gods is twelve, 1 but this is merely a round figure, not
borne out by other references in his work. Thus, in the account
of the gods which follows this statement, fourteen are named.
These are Odin, Thor, Balder, Njord, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heim-
dall, Hod, Vidarr, Vali, Ull, Forseti, and Loki.

At the beginning of the Bragarcedur Snorri enumerates the
gods present at a banquet, and, including Odin, names thirteen
of them. Balder is omitted, and Hoenir appears in place of
Hod.

The prose introduction to Lokasenna names Odin, Thor,
Bragi, Tyr, Njord, Frey, Vidarr, and Loki. In Grimnismal
Odin, Ull, Frey, Balder, Heimdall, Forseti, Njord, Vidarr,
and Thor are named. In other poems the other gods are
mentioned.

With these gods are also several goddesses, some of whom
are little more than names or hypostases of a greater goddess.
Their names are Frigg, consort of Odin, Freyja, sister of Frey,
Saga, Eir, Gefjun, Fulla, Hnoss, Sjofn, Lofn, Var, Syn,
Hlin, Snotra, Gna, Idunn, Nanna, Sif. Besides these, two local
goddesses, Thorgerd Holgabrud and her sister Irpa, are men-
tioned in Skaldskafarmal and in some of the Sagas.

Other more or less divine beings are mentioned occasionally.
Vili and Ve are brothers of Odin, and form a kind of creative


1 6


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


triad with him. A similar triad is that of Odin, Hoenir, and
Lodur. There are also subordinate gods, regarded as servants
of the higher deities, e.g., Skirnir and Hermod. ^Egir, not
counted among the gods, is yet a god of the sea; a giant, how-
ever, rather than a god. Ran is his consort. Then, again, Hel
is a somewhat vague female personification of the Underworld.

Some of the gods are married to giantesses, who, as their
consorts, are reckoned with the deities — Frey to Gerd, Njord
to Skadi, Odin to Jord (Earth), co-wife with Frigg. Such
nature objects as the sun, personified as Sol, and one of the two
beings who follow the moon in the sky, i.e., Bil, are also reck-
oned among the goddesses by Snorri . 2

We do not know that all these deities were worshipped
together in Norway and Iceland, indeed for many of them no
evidence of a cult exists. Some may have been local divinities:
some are regarded as creations of the skalds. Among them all
Odin, Thor, and Frey are pre-eminent, but, as we shall see, the
precise significance of Odin’s position in relation to Thor re-
quires elucidation. In Snorri’s Edda Odin is head of a court or
assembly of divinities. Their common home is Asgard, but most
of them have a separate abode, as appears from Grimnismal ,
here followed by Snorri.

We now enquire whether any of these deities were known in
other parts of the Germanic area outside Norway and Iceland.

For Denmark and Sweden we depend mainly on Saxo Gram-
maticus and Adam of Bremen, the eleventh century historian.
Saxo may be assumed to speak for the pagan past of Denmark,
though he uses Icelandic sources to some extent in his curious
account of the legendary history of that country. He has a
conception of the gods as gods, though he generally tends to
visualize them from a euhemeristic standpoint, as kings, magi-
cians, and the like. He mentions Othinus (Odin), chief of the
gods, whose rule, with that of the other gods, extended over
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, but who used to sojourn more
continually at Upsala. Odin is also called Uggerus (Norse






.









































PLATE IV
The Golden Horns

These golden horns were found in a field on the
west coast of Slesvig, the longer in 1639, the shorter
in 1734. The surfaces of the horns are divided into
compartments with figures believed to represent deities
and mythic scenes. The date of the horns is the fifth
century a.d. If, as has been maintained by some, the
scenes depict Eddie gods and myths, including repre-
sentations of Valhall and Yggdrasil, then much of the
mythology is of far earlier date than most scholars
assign to it. This interpretation of the figures and
scenes is, however, entirely hypothetical and has won
little support. The runes at the rim of the smaller
horn give the name of the artificer.





THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY


i7


Ygg). Other deities named are Frey, 1 satrap of the gods,’
whose seat was at Upsala; Thor, Balder, Hotherus (Hod),
Ollerus (Ull), Freya (Frigg), and Nanna. Loki may be
represented by Ugarthilocus (Utgard-Loki). Proserpina may
stand for Held Adam of Bremen describes a sanctuary at Up-
sala, with images of Thor, Woden, and Fricco (Frey ). 4 The
other Eddie deities are not mentioned by these or other writers
about the Danes and Swedes, though Procopius speaks of Ares
as a Scandinavian deity, i.e., Odin or Tyr . 5

For the Germanic tribes, apart from place or personal names,
there are few references to the gods of the pagan period. Taci-
tus gives Roman names to native gods — Mars (Ziu or Tyr),
Mercury (Wodan), Hercules (perhaps Thor). He also men-
tions a native name of a goddess Nerthus and describes her cult.
Two brothers called Alcis are compared to Castor and Pollux,
and are said to have been worshipped in a grove as deities by
one tribe. He also speaks of the grove of Baduhenna among
the Frisians and the temple of Tamfana among the Marsi. The
first part of the name Baduhenna is connected with AS beadu ,
OH G batu-y ON bop, 1 war,’ and the second part with OHG
winna, 1 quarrel,’ MHG zoinnen, ‘ to rage,’ Gothic winno , 1 pas-
sion,’ showing that Baduhenna was a War-goddess, 1 the war-
mad one.’ A division of the Suebi worshipped Isis, whose sym-
bol was a ship. This cult Tacitus considers of foreign origin,
but it is doubtless that of a native goddess whose name is con-
cealed in that of Isis.

Several names of deities are mentioned in inscriptions on
altars and other monuments, mainly in Romano-German ter-
ritory, but the names of these, doubtless more or less local
deities, have nothing in common with those of Scandinavia.

More to the purpose are the two Merseburg charms found in
a tenth century manuscript in the library of the cathedral at
Merseburg, and probably of earlier date. Both charms refer to
mythical actions of the deities, and by recounting these similar
results are expected to follow. Such charms as these are met


i8


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


with in ancient times and are of widespread occurrence. The
first charm concerns a group of beings called Idisi, a name re-
sembling that of the Norse female spirits called Disir and in-
cluding Valkyries and Norns. To the functions of the Val-
kyries those of the Idisi in the charm correspond — binding
or loosing fetters on prisoners of war and keeping back the
enemy.

The other charm relates that while Phol and Uuodan
(Wodan) rode to the wood, the foot of Balder’s colt was
wrenched. Sinthgunt charmed it and her sister Sunna; then
Fria charmed it and Volla her sister. Then Uuodan charmed it,
as he well knew how to do. The implication is that the god-
desses could not heal the foot by their magic, while Wodan’s
magic succeeded. As we shall see later various explanations of
‘ Phol ’ have been suggested, while ‘ Balder ’ has been regarded
as not a proper name here, but an appellative for ‘ prince,’ and
referring to Odin himself, Phol being then explained as the
name of Odin’s horse. Of the four goddesses Fria is Frigg;
Volla suggests the Norse Fulla; Sunna may be a personification
of the sun. Sinthgunt is unexplained. Some scholars think
that two goddesses only are mentioned in the charm as present ;
it should then read: ‘Sinthgunt, Sunna’s sister,’ and ‘Fria,
Volla’s sister .’ 6

Wodan and Frija (Frigg) were also known to the Lombards,
as a legend concerning them shows . 7

The next piece of evidence is derived from German names of
the days of the week. These show that Wodan was known in
North-west Germany and Holland; Fria (Frigg) over a wider
area; Donar (Thor) all over Germany, Tiu (Tyr) in the
South-west.

A formula of renunciation used at the baptism of Saxon con-
verts in Charlemagne’s time names three gods — Woden,
Thunaer (Thor), and Saxnot, as well as other Unholden , divin-
ities or spirits regarded from a Christian point of view as
demons . 8 Saxnot, ‘ Sword companion,’ is the Seaxneat of


THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY


i9

Anglo-Saxon genealogies, and is regarded as a form of the
god Tyr.

Another god of a local kind is Fosite, mentioned in Alcuin’s
Life of S. Willibrord , as worshipped on an island named after
him. According to Adam of Bremen this island was Helgo-
land . 9 It is not certain that Fosite is the Eddie Forseti.

Turning now to the Anglo-Saxons, the only available evi-
dence is that of names of the days of the week, genealogical lists,
and place-names. The first of these gives Tiw or Tyr (Tues-
day), Woden (Wednesday), Thunor or Thor (Thursday), Fri
or Frigg (Friday). The genealogical lists of the royal families
trace descent back to Woden. In those of Bernicia and Wessex
Bseldacg (Balder) succeeds Woden. In that of Essex Seaxneat
is his son . 10 Thor’s name occurs in place-names.

The evidence from these different regions shows that there
was a certain number of deities known locally and objects of a
local or tribal cult. Few names of these have been preserved.
The wide acceptance of Roman deities by the Celts had no
parallel among the Teutons. Nor does the rich variety of native
Celtic local deities, whether equated or not with Roman deities,
meet us in Teutonic lands. Inscriptions with names of local
deities are few and generally enigmatic . 11 On the other hand
there are some deities known more or less over the whole area —
Wodan or Woden or Odin, Thunor or Thor, Tiu or Tyr, and
Frija, Fria, or Frigg. Hence these have been called £ pan-
Teutonic deities,’ who 1 must have come down from a period
when the Teutons were still an undivided people .’ 12 Neverthe-
less this statement of Mogk’s requires some modification, since,
as is suggested by various lines of evidence and as he himself
admits, the cult of Wodan migrated from Germany by way of
Denmark to Scandinavia, where it tended to supersede that of
Thor.

[Prometheus]

The divinities of Norse mythology are called ^Esir (singular
Ass). The original meaning of the word is uncertain. Mogk
and others, however, regard it as connected etymologically with


20


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Sanskrit anas , ‘ breath/ £ wind.’ Hence the ^Esir were origi-
nally animistic beings or souls. Odin, as leader of the host of
the dead, belonged to the TSsir, but as his rank became higher
and more divine so the word Ass as applied to him assumed the
meaning of £ god/ and all gods associated with Odin were known
as Tisir, Odin being oztr asa, 1 mightiest of the .Esir.’ 13 This
theory gains some support from the fact that the corresponding
Gothic word ansis was used as the title of dead ancestral chiefs
in the sense of semi-deos , according to Jordanes, the historian
of the Goths. The Bardar-saga relates that, after his death,
Bardar, as guardian spirit of the region about Snaefell was
known as £ Snaefells-ass.’ 14 The corresponding Anglo-Saxon
word is esa (singular oj), used in the phrase esa gescot , ylja
gescoty £ the shot of esa and elves.’ Esa here apparently meant
supernatural beings hostile to men, rather than gods, but
the word may have once meant £ gods/ and /Esir and
Alfar ( £ elves ’) are frequently coupled together in Eddie
poetry. In other branches of Teutonic speech a correspond-
ing word is found as part of personal names — OHG ans in
Anso, Anshelm, and the like, Saxon and AS os in Oswald, Oslaf,
Osdag.

Among the .Esir were included certain deities, Njord, Frey,
Freyja, and possibly others, called collectively Vanir. These
were once opposed to the ^Esir, according to certain myths.
They were deities of wealth, fruitfulness, trade, and prosperity,
and their name may be connected with words meaning £ bright/
£ shining.’

The gods are also known by the general neuter name gop ,
£ gods/ with the epithet £ holy/ £ blessed/ this corresponding to
Gothic gup; AS and OS god. Under Christian influence the
word became masculine. Other names applied to the gods are
regen y the word signifying £ decreeing ’ and £ deciding/ hence
perhaps £ counsellors.’ Voluspa speaks of all the re gen assem-
bling at the seat of judgment to take counsel. In Havamaly
Alvissmaly and Hymiskvitha occurs the word ginn-regen y £ the


THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY


21


high or holy gods,’ and in Alvissmal up-re gen is used with the
meaning 1 the gods above.’ In the two passages of Alvissmal
where ginn-regen occurs the word may signify the Vanir . 15

Still another term for gods is tivar, 1 shining ones,’ related
to Sanskrit devas. It occurs in some of the Eddie poems. The
forms sig-tivar , val- tivar, c battle-gods,’ also occur . 16 For some
reason not quite clear gods are described as hopt ok bond ,
( fastenings and bands ’ or c fetters.’

Goddesses are included in the term yLsir, but a specific name
for them is Asynjur (singular Asynja).

Generally speaking the gods of Eddie mythology are con-
ceived under anthropomorphic forms, yet distinguished from
men in different ways. Noble or princely men were sometimes
regarded as gods. The sons of Hjalti, as they came to the
assembly in Iceland, looked so magnificent and well-equipped
that the people thought they were Aisir. Of Sigurd in his mag-
nificent war-gear, riding a splendid horse, as he entered Gjuki’s
town, it was said : 1 Surely here comes one of the gods ! ’ 17 The
birth of some of the gods is related j their human passions or
weaknesses are described ; they grow old; eventually they must
die.

Some of the gods are described in striking language. They
are white or shining, like Balder or Heimdall. The goddess
Sif is famed for her luxuriant gold hair. On the other hand,
if they have not the numerous hands and arms of Hindu gods,
some are deformed. Odin is one-eyed, Tyr has only one hand,
Hod is blind. Probably most of the gods were regarded as
larger than men: this is true of Thor in particular. Some are
thought of as older, some younger. Odin is grey-bearded, yet
has none of the weakness of age. Thor is as a man in his prime.
Balder is a youth, attractive and graceful. Some of the gods
waxed in size and strength as soon as born. Vali, son of Odin,
avenged Balder’s death when he was one night old. Magni,
son of Thor, when three nights old, could lift the giant
Hrungnir’s foot off his father, though all the ^Esir together


22


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


could not do this, and said that he would have slain him with
his fist had not Thor killed him.

The gods eat and drink, and much is told of their banquets
and ale or mead drinking. To Odin alone wine suffices for
meat and drink. Thor is a gluttonous eater and drinker, whose
gigantic meals are described. Though the gods are longer-lived
than men, they are not absolutely immortal, and their long age
or renewed youth depends upon eating the apples of immortality
guarded by Idunn. To give immortal youth may originally
have been the purpose of Odrorir, the magic mead of poesy . 18
Yet the gods are doomed to destruction, and the death of Balder
is recounted. Meanwhile they are subject to wounds, and Frey
falls sick of love.

The gods have preternatural powers, knowledge, and
strength, but sometimes this strength seems to depend on certain
possessions, e.g., Thor’s hammer, girdle of strength, and gloves.
Odin can overlook the worlds, but only when he sits on his
Heaven-throne. Skirnismal shows that when Frey sat thereon,
he had the same far vision. Magical powers were inherent in
the gods: vanishing suddenly, transformation into other forms,
human or animal, the production of glamour, and the like.
Though they can move quickly from place to place, swift flight
depends on a falcon’s plumage or feather-dress ( fadr-hamr\
which belongs to Freyja or Frigg, but is put on by others, e.g.,
Loki.

They are often described as riding, and their horses are
famous steeds. They ride through air and sea and on land,
or daily to their place of judgment. Earth shakes when they
ride. Freyja rides on a boar, but she has also her wagon
drawn by cats. Thor is famed for his wagon drawn by
goats.

Like mortals the gods are subject to passions. They are mild
or blithe. Their laughter is mentioned. They are joyous. But
sometimes they are angry, and then their wrath is terrible, and
especially is this true of Thor . 19 They are subject to the pas-


























PLATE V


Details of the Larger Horn

The upper compartment is assumed to depict the
Fenris-wolf playing with the gods, then (below)
bound, while Tyr with his hand bitten off is close by
(see p. 99). The next compartments show gods and
animals and animal-headed monsters. In the sixth
the design is interpreted as showing wolves attacking
the sun (see p. 199), and, in the lowest, as the entrance
to the realm of the dead.



THE GODS: A GENERAL SURVEY


23

sion of love, and, besides their consorts, Odin and Thor have
other wives or mistresses.

In many other ways the life of the gods reflects that of men.
As described by Snorri, Odin, as chief of the gods, has a court
which resembles that of earthly kings. The gods meet for
counsel and judgment in the Thing, the Scandinavian assembly
for the discussion of important matters and for the making of
laws and giving of decisions. Snorri describes their riding daily
over Bifrost, the rainbow-bridge, to the well of Urd, where they
hold a tribunal. In the stanza which he quotes from Grimnis-
mal and which seems to refer to this, Thor is said to walk when
he goes to give dooms at the ash Yggdrasil, beneath one of the
roots of which is Urd’s well. The gods delight in banquets and
feasting, in song and games of skill. They are fond of fighting
and some of them follow the chase. The goddesses spin and
weave ; one of them, Gefjun, ploughs. They have servants,
messengers, and cup-bearers.

The iEsir dwell in Asgard as the Vanir dwell in Vanaheim,
the Alfar in Alfheim, the giants in Jotunheim. Asgard is the
heavenly home of the gods, but in Snorri’s euhemeristic ac-
count, it is in the centre of the earth, perhaps on a mountain,
its top reaching to the heavens. Gods also dwell on mountains.
The poetic account in Grimnismal of the separate abodes of indi-
vidual gods is probably due to skaldic fiction rather than to
popular belief.

The rank and functions of the gods vary, but these will be
discussed in dealing with them separately. It should be noted,
however, that, in describing some of the gods, Snorri uses a kind
of formula. He tells what phenomena of nature or department
of life each one rules over, and for what things it is good for
men to call upon them . 20

There is a tendency to group certain gods together. Besides
the larger groups of vEsir and Vanir, we find certain gods asso-
ciated, usually three in number. For purposes of cult this was
true of Odin, Thor, and Frey. But myths associate Odin,


24


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Hoenir, and Lodur (Loki) in the work of creation and in other
actions, or, again, Odin and his brothers, Vili and Ve . 21 Snorri
tells how Gylfi was received by three lords of ascending rank,
and their names Har, Jafnhar, and Thridi seem to be poetic
names for Odin, as all three are given in the list of his names in
Grimnismal. There may here have been some conscious imita-
tion of the Christian Trinity by Snorri in this otherwise inexpli-
cable triad.

The older grouping of the chief Germanic gods was that of
Wodan, Donar and Ziu (Tyr), and it was connected, as doubt-
less the other threefold groupings were, with the sacredness of
the number three. It appears again in the Germanic theogony as
reported by Tacitus in speaking of the progenitors of gods and
men, the third member of the triad being a group of three —
Tuisto, Mannus, and the three sons of Mannus. Corresponding
to these in Eddie mythology are Buri, Borr, and Borr’s three
sons, Odin, Vili and Ve. The same threefold grouping is seen
in the three Norns, three Swan-maidens (as in the Volund
story), three groups of Idisi in the Merseburg charm, and three
groups of Valkyries, as in Helgakvitha Hjorvards sonar . 22

The relation of gods and men is generally that of interest and
help on the one hand, and of dependence, exhibited by prayer
and sacrifice, on the other. Certain offences or kinds of conduct
seem to have been regarded as punishable by the gods. Myths
speak of their coming and going among men, to help them or to
take part in their affairs, as Odin does in battle. This was sym-
bolized in ritual — the procession of a divine image in a wagon
(Frey, Nerthus), in which, as Tacitus says, the actual deity was
believed to be present.


CHAPTER II


THE VANIR

T HOUGH associated in cult with the yEsir or even in-
cluded among them in the Eddas , the Vanir are a small
but distinct group of gods. They dwell in Vanaheim, not As-
gard, and include Njord, Frey, and Freyja, possibly also Heim-
dall, who is guardian of Frey and is said to be ‘ like the Vanir 5
in knowing the future well. This forethought is not elsewhere
attributed to the Vanir, but they are called ‘ wise .’ 1 They are
also ‘warlike,’ just as Frey is ‘battle-bold .’ 2 Their general
functions seem to be those of nature deities, rulers of the fruitful
earth and of prosperity. They are connected with sea-faring,
commerce, and hunting, with peace (Frey), and with love
(Freyja). V afthrudnismal seems to regard them as a larger
group than those specifically named, for it says that ‘ the wise
powers ’ (vis re gen) in Vanaheim created Njord, and that hav-
ing been given as a pledge to the yEsir, at the Doom of the world
he will return home to the Vanir. Other references to the
Vanir suggest a numerous body, though this may be a result
of the process of euhemerization, which is apt to make a group
of deities into a whole people. Njord is called ‘god of the
Vanir,’ ‘ kinsman of the Vanir,’ with other epithets, applied also
to his son Frey. His daughter Freyja is ‘ goddess of the Vanir,’
‘ lady of the Vanir,’ ‘ bride of the Vanir .’ 3 Yet all three are
included among the yEsir. The poem Alvissmai, like other
Eddie references, however, shows clearly their separate identity,
by telling what names they, as distinct from yEsir, Alfar, etc.,
use for different things. Sigrdrifumal also distinguishes them
from the yEsir, when it says that runes were given to yEsir,
Vanir, Alfar, and men.


2 6


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


This distinction is upheld also in the different and mostly
euhemerized accounts of the war between the ^Esir and the
Vanir. Of this Snorri gives two accounts. In his Edda } Bragi,
recounting to Tigir the origins of poetry, says that the gods had
a dispute with the people called Vanir. The cause or nature of
the dispute is not mentioned. A peace-meeting was appointed,
and peace was established by each and all spitting into a vat.
When they parted, the gods would not let this token perish, but
from it created a man, Kvasir. His story will be told later . 4
A different account of the settlement is given in a previous chap-
ter of the Edda. Njord, reared in Vanaheim, was delivered as
hostage to the ASsir, Hoenir being taken in exchange by the
Vanir. He became an atonement between the two groups. This
statement is copied from V aft hrudnismal . 5

The euhemeristic account of the war and final agreement is
fuller in Snorri’s Ynglinga-saga. Odin and his host attacked
the Vanir, who defended their land. Now one, now the other,
prevailed: each harried the land of the other, until, tiring of
this, they held a meeting of truce, made peace, and delivered
hostages to each other. The Vanir gave their noblest — Njord
the wealthy and his son Frey. The yEsir gave Hoenir, and said
that he was meet to be lord, big and goodly as he was. With him
they gave Mimir, wisest of men, the Vanir giving for him one
of their best wits, Kvasir. Hoenir was made lord at Vanaheim
(here said to be situated at the mouth of the Tanais, at the
Black Sea), and Mimir taught him good counsel. Hoenir’s
stupidity was soon discovered by the Vanir when, at meetings of
the Thing, Mimir not being present, Hoenir would say: 1 Let
others give rule,’ whenever any hard matter was brought up.
They saw that the Aisir had over-reached them, and, having cut
Mimir’s throat, sent his head to the Aisir. Odin made Njord
and Frey temple-priests or Diar (from Irish dta, ‘god’).
Njord’s daughter Freyja first taught spell-craft ( seidr ) ac-
cording to the custom of the Vanir among the Aisir (i.e., some
special form of magic). Frey and Freyja, though brother and


THE VANIR


27

sister, were married, also in accordance with Vanir custom . 6
Vanaheim, thus made a district on earth’s surface, is one of the
nine worlds mentioned in Alvissmal.

A less euhemeristic account of this war and its origin is found
in Voluspa. The seeress remembers the first war in the world.
The AEsir had smitten Gollveig with spears and burned her in
Odin’s hall. Three times they burned her, yet ever she lives.
They called her Heid, a Volva, a magic-wielder, who practised
mind-disturbing magic and sorcery, and was the desire of evil
women. All the gods held council whether the AEsir should
give tribute, i.e., to the Vanir, or all gods (AEsir and Vanir)
should share the sacrifices. Odin threw his spear over the
host — this happened in the first world-war; now the Vanir
trod the field, and the wall of Asgard was broken down.

The order of the stanzas telling this myth varies in different
manuscripts, and the account of Odin’s throwing his spear and
the subsequent fight should probably precede the account of
the council of AEsir and Vanir. The meaning seems to be that
Gollveig, who may be Freyja, came among the AEsir and
was shamefully treated, perhaps for her skill in magic. This
led to the war, in which the citadel of the AEsir was broken
down and the Vanir were triumphant. A council was then
held. From the prose sources we gather that a compromise
was arrived at — the sharing of the cult by both groups and
an exchange of hostages. The latter is known to the author of
V afthrudnismal, and must have been part of the original myth.

Gollveig, £ Gold-might,’ who is burned and comes alive
again, is thought to embody the power of gold and its refining
by fire. Whether she is the same as Heid, or whether the stanza
about Heid is in its wrong place and refers to the Volva who
utters the whole poem, is a moot point. If Gollveig and Heid
are identical, both have some connexion with Freyja. Freyja’s
tears are said to be red gold, and gold is called Freyja’s tears . 7
Freyja is described as a sorceress who introduced magic or a
special kind of magic among the AEsir. Gollveig-Heid would


28


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


thus be Freyja, and the ill-treatment of this Vanir god-
dess would be the cause of the war. Unfortunately the myth in
Volusfa is too enigmatic and the stories given by Snorri are too
much euhemerized, to tell exactly what the primitive form of
the myth was. Whether, as asserted by Miillenhoff, it meant
that by gold the gods were corrupted or endangered, like heroes
of Sagas, is problematical. Gollveig may, however, have some
connexion with the introduction of gold among the Northern
people.

This myth of a war between groups of gods or of these re-
garded more or less as mortals, seems to reflect the opposition of
rival cults and their upholders — one recently introduced and
gaining popularity, but opposed by the supporters of the other.
At last, after violent conflict, a compromise was effected and
both cults now existed side by side. The groups of deities are
linked together, but their separate origin is never quite for-
gotten. Which group of gods was first in the field, and where
was the scene of this cult war? Opinions vary. Njord is closely
linked to the goddess Nerthus whose cult on an island, probably
Seeland, is described by Tacitus. Frey, sometimes called
Yngvi-Frey, would then have been, like Nerthus, a divinity
of the Teutonic amphictyony known as the Ingvasones, whose
habitat was North-west Germany. The Vanir group would thus
be indigenous in that region: did it there come in contact with
an incoming cult of Odin, with the result of a cult war, the
legends of which were carried to Scandinavia with the passing
of the cult to that region?

On the other hand, the Vanir cult, passing to Sweden, where
the worship of Frey obtained great prominence and was carried
thence to Norway and Iceland, would come in conflict with the
cult of Odin recently introduced into Sweden, and Sweden
would thus be the scene of a cult war. It will be observed that
Odin is the chief protagonist on the side of the Aisir in the
myth . 8

Others think that the cult of Frey, the Svia-god, or Sweden-

[Prometheus]

THE VANIR


29

god, or the blot or 1 sacrifice ’ god of Sweden, though introduced
to Sweden from without, was now firmly rooted there. The
cult of Odin, the Saxa-god or Saxon-god, was introduced later,
c. 800 a.d., and aroused a strong national counter-current of
opposition. This is the view of Golther, and Chadwick says:
c That the two cults of Odin and Frey were originally quite dis-
tinct, and that the latter was the earlier of the two, there can
hardly be any serious doubt.’ 9

Whatever be the truth regarding this cult war, it is clear that
some fusion occurred, and that now the temples, altars, and
images of ALsir and Vanir stood side by side. This is seen from
historical notices of cult, and from the grouping of Odin, Thor,
and Frey.

Golther also finds a trace of this cult war in another chapter
of the Ynglinga-saga. After Odin heard that good land was
to be found in Gylfi’s country or Sweden, he journeyed there.
Gylfi had no power to withstand the Aisir folk. Peace was
made, and Odin and Gylfi had many dealings in cunning tricks
and illusion. Odin erected a temple with blood-offerings ac-
cording to the custom of the Aisir at Sigtun. Frey’s seat was at
Upsala. 10 Here, instead of the Vanir, the Swedish king opposes
Odin, and the latter succeeds in establishing a cult. The
Swedish kings, who regarded themselves as descendants of
Frey, would naturally oppose the cult of Odin.

Though the cult of Odin does not strike one as other than
that of a barbaric people, that of the Vanir was not necessarily
more enlightened, and it has some primitive traits — the
brother-sister marriages of Njord and of Frey, and the phallic
aspect of the latter.

There are traces also of the opposition between gods of light,
fertility, merchandise, and prosperity, such as the Vanir were,
and gods of war, like Odin — - the gods of people with con-
trasted cultures, but later coalescing and sharing cult and
sacrifice. This appears in the statement of Volusia about Aiisir
and Vanir sharing sacrifices, and of the Ynglinga-saga , that the


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


30

iLsir had blood-offerings, while Odin gave sites to the £ temple-
priests,’ i.e., the gods Njord, Frey, etc . 11

A similar view of a war between divinities is found in the
euhemerized accounts of Celtic mythology in Ireland. The
Tuatha De Danann fought with Firbolgs and Fomorians. Yet
both intermarried or were in friendly relations with each other.
There is an echo here of the strife of friendly and hostile nature
powers, or, more likely, of the conquest of aboriginal people
and their deities by an incoming race and their gods, with sub-
sequent union between the two . 12


CHAPTER III


EUHEMERISM

T HE theory of the Greek Euhemerus (fourth century
b.c. ) that the gods were deified men, played an important
part in the later Christian interpretation of the deities of dif-
ferent lands. Along with the beliefs that the gods were really
devils, this theory that they had been men who, usually by
demoniac aid or magic craft, dominated the minds of their fel-
lows and caused them to worship them, was the stock argument
against paganism for many centuries. We need not be sur-
prised, therefore, to find it used as an explanation of the origin
of the Scandinavian deities, even by the mythographer Snorri
himself, who has preserved so much of the old mythology.

Snorri was an enthusiast for the traditions of the past as well
as for the poetic art and its fitting expression, but he was a
Christian, and therefore could not believe in the truth of these
traditions nor in the gods themselves. Hence he says, address-
ing his audience of youthful skalds, that while they should not
forget nor discredit the traditions by removing from poetry the
ancient metaphors which originated out of them, yet, on the
other hand, Christian men could not believe in pagan gods nor
in the truth of the myths about them except in the sense set
forth in the beginning of the book . 1

The beginning of the book of which he speaks is the Pro-
logue to the Edda , which, because it is written from the euhe-
meristic point of view in greater or less contradiction to the
standpoint of the book itself, has sometimes been regarded as by
another hand. On the contrary, Snorri’s definition of his posi-
tion shows that this Prologue and the traditions or myths of
the book are quite in keeping with each other.


32


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


The Prologue begins with a notice of the Creation, of Noah
and the Flood, and of the races descended from him, and their
thoughts about all that they saw around them. The world is
divided into three parts — Africa, Europe, and Asia. The
centre of the earth, Troy or Turkland, is in Asia , 4 best of homes
and haunts.* Here we notice the influence of the classical tradi-
tion of Troy, as distinct from the general medieval view, as in
Dante, that Jerusalem was the centre of the earth. In Troy
were twelve kingdoms and one high king. In the stronghold
were twelve chieftains, and one of these, Munon (Agamem-
non), had a son Tror or Thor, by Troan, daughter of Priam.
At twelve years old he had attained his full strength, and went
forth over all the earth, slaying berserks, giants, dragons, and
beasts. He married the prophetess Sibil, 4 whom we call
Sif.’ From him, strangely enough, and certainly in contra-
diction to what is said in the Edda , through a long line of
descendants, came Voden, 4 whom we call Odin,’ a man famed
for wisdom and every accomplishment. His wife was Fri'gida
(Frigg).

Odin and Frigg had second sight, and thus he knew that his
name would be exalted in the northern regions. With a great
multitude he journeyed out of Turkland, wandering over many
lands, where he and his people seemed more like gods than men.
At last they came to Saxland, where Odin abode long, taking
possession of the land. In it he set three of his sons to rule —
Vegdeg, Beldeg (Balder), and Sigi from whom came the Vol-
sungs. Odin now made his way northwards to Reidgothland
(Jutland), where he set his son Skjold, ancestor of the Skjol-
dings or kings of the Danes.

Going still farther north, Odin came to Sweden, then ruled
by Gylfi. When Gylfi heard of the coming of these /Esir, or
4 men of Asia,’ he met them, offering Odin such power in his
kingdom as he himself wielded. Learned medieval etymology
thus connected the ^Esir with Asia. Snorri says that well-being,
good seasons, and peace followed on the footsteps of Odin and









.



































' . . . . - .




BL I

















PLATE VI


Details of the Smaller Horn

As interpreted by J. J. A. Worsaae this horn depicts
scenes from Valhall. In the upper compartment is
Odin with spear, sceptre, and the ring Draupnir. Be-
low him is the boar Saehrimnir. To the left are two
Einherjar; to the right Odin’s wolves, the hart Eik-
thyrnir, and the goat Heidrun. Beyond these is Frey
with sickle and sceptre; below him the boar Gullin-
bursti. The next compartment shows, to the right, a
three-headed figure representing the triad of gods,
Odin, Thor, and Frey (others regard the figure as
that of Thor). The large serpent is Loki with Idunn’s
apple in his mouth. The bird attacking a fish is the
giant Thjazi; the fish is Loki. To the extreme left
are figures symbolizing the slaying of Balder. The
third compartment represents the gate of Valhall, fish
swimming in the river surrounding it, the Ash Ygg-
drasil with the serpent Nidhogg at its roots, Hermod on
Sleipnir, etc. In the fourth is Frey, with horse and
sickle. All this interpretation is purely hypothetical.



EUHEMERISM 33

the Ttsir. Men believed that these were caused by them. The
iEsir were unlike all other men in fairness and wisdom.

In this region Odin founded a city called Sigtun, and estab-
lished chieftains there as in Troy, with twelve doomsmen to
judge. He now went to Norway and set his son Saeming to
rule there. Another of his sons, Yngvi, was king in Sweden
after him, and from him are descended the Ynglings.

Snorri stops short here, without explaining how Odin and his
sons came to be worshipped as gods, but it is clear that, in his
mind, the gods had once been heroic men. This is more defi-
nitely shown in the earlier chapters of the Ynglmga-saga , which
forms the first part of his Heimskringla.

Here it is said that a great river, Tanais, flows from the North
over Sweden to the Black Sea, dividing Europe and Asia. To
the East of it is Asaheim, the land of the Tisirj its chief city is
Asgard (the Troy of the Prologue to the Edda). Here a great
chieftain, Odin, dwelt. It was a place of blood-offerings, with
twelve temple-priests, who ruled the sacrifices and judged be-
tween men. They were called Diar or Drotnar, and all men
were bound to their service.

Odin was a great warrior and far-travelled, who conquered
many realms and was always victorious. He went West and
South, even to Saxland, where he set his sons to rule. Thence
he journeyed North to an island called now Odin’s island
in Fion. Afterwards he went to Gylfi’s land and made
peace with him. Gylfi knew that he could not withstand the,
Tisir, who were mightier than he, especially in magic. Odin
abode at the Low and made there a great temple. This he
called Sigtun, and here he gave their abodes to the temple-
priests. Njord dwelt at Noatun, Frey at Upsala, Heimdall at
Himinbjorg, Thor at Thrudvang, Balder at Breidablik.

Having told how Odin and the Diar taught crafts to the
North countries, Snorri gives details of Odin’s superiority in
many things, especially magic, an account of which will be given
in Chapter IV. Hence he grew famous. He taught much of


34


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


his cunning to the temple-priests, who were now next to him in
magic and craft. Others got knowledge of this magic, and so it
spread far and wide and lasted long.

To Odin and these twelve lords men now offered sacrifice
and called them gods, and named their children after them — a
clear statement of the euhemeristic point of view.

Odin settled laws and arranged how the dead were to be
burned with their goods, so that they might come to Valhall.
All over Sweden men paid Odin tribute, but he was bound to
keep their land from war, and to sacrifice for them for a good
year. At last he died in his bed in Sweden, but was marked
with a spear-point, claiming as his own all who died by weapons.
He said that he would go his way to Godheim and there wel-
come all his friends. The Swedes thought that he had gone to
the Asgard of old days, there to live for ever. So began anew
the worship of Odin and vowing of vows to him. The Swedes
believed that he showed himself to them in dreams before a
battle. To some he gave victory; others he bade come to him;
and either lot was held to be good.

To Odin succeeded Njord, and to him Frey, and a similar
euhemeristic account is given of these . 2

The notices of the deities given by Saxo Grammaticus in his
Gesta Danorum show that he also adopted the euhemeristic
theory, probably from Icelandic writers who preceded him and
from whom he borrowed. But he differs from Snorri in his
incisive and contemptuous way of referring to the gods. He
has none of Snorri’s irony or wit or delight in the humour of a
story, none of his interest in preserving traditions intact. To
him the gods were mortal deceivers and magicians. There had
been in old days three races of such magicians. The first was
that of the giants. Following them was a race skilled in divina-
tion, and surpassing the giants in mental power as these sur-
passed them in bodily condition. Constant wars for supremacy
were waged between them, till the second race subdued the
first, and gained not merely rule but also the repute of being


EUHEMERISM


35

divine. Both races were skilled in the art of delusion and in
appearing to change their form or that of others. The third
race, springing from the union of the two others, had neither the
bodily size nor the skill in magic of their parents, yet they
gained credit as gods with those deluded by their magic . 3

The second race is apparently the ^Esir, but the third is more
obscure, and perhaps Vanir, or Alfar, or Dwarfs are intended.
The passage, however, is far from clear, and is not connected
with what is presently said of Odin and other deities.

According to Saxo the gods first dwelt in Byzantium, which
here stands for Asgard, in a senatus divinus or collegium. This
resembles Snorri’s account of the temple-priests. Odin was
reckoned to be chief of the gods. He was believed all over
Europe to have the honour of divinity, which was false. He
used to dwell much at Upsala, and the kings of the North,
anxious to worship his deity, made an image of him, which they
sent to Byzantium. Frey, the regent (satrapa) of the gods,
also took up his abode at Upsala . 4

These scattered statements are followed by a more definite
notice of Saxo’s opinion. In former days there were men who
excelled in sorcery — Thor, Odin, and many others. They
were cunning in contriving magical tricks, and thus, gaining the
minds of the simple, they began to claim the rank of gods.
They ensnared Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in the vainest
credulity, and by moving these lands to worship them, infected
them with their imposture. The effect of this spread far and
wide, and men adored a sort of divine power in them, and,
supposing them to be gods or in league with gods, they offered
up prayers to them. Hence days are called by their names, and
Saxo here enters into a short discussion of their equivalence with
Roman deities. He concludes by telling his readers that they
will now know to what kind of worship their country once bowed
the knee . 5

Saxo is sometimes satirical towards these deified impostors.
When Odin seeks advice from diviners and prophets regarding


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


36

vengeance on Balder, he adds this comment: 1 Godhead that is
incomplete is often in need of human help .’ 6

According to the theories set forth by Snorri and Saxo, the
gods had once been kings or priests or men possessed of pro-
found magical powers, and because of their superiority or their
cunning, caused credulous people to worship them as deities
both before and after their deaths.


CHAPTER IV


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN

I N one form or another Odin or Wodan was known to many
of the Teutonic peoples, for, since he is undoubtedly the god
whom the interpretatio Romana identified with Mercury, the
existence of a word formed from his name for the title of the
fourth day of the week, corresponding to Dies Mercurius , was
widespread. This was in OS Wodanes dag, in AS Wodenes
daeg (English Wednesday), OF Wonsdei, ON Odensdagr
(Swedish and Danish Onsdag), MHG Wodenesdach, Gudens-
dag. 1

Among the tribes of Upper Germany (Alemanni, Bavarians,
Suabians), the name of Wodan for the fourth day of the week
is unknown, the word mittawecha , c mid-week,’ taking its place,
and suggesting that Wodan was unknown to them, or did not
occupy a high place when the Roman names for the days of the
week were introduced on Teutonic ground, and rendered in
terms of the names of native gods. Place-, plant-, and star-
names formed from Wodan are also lacking in this region. 2

Tacitus says that the Germans, i.e., the Rhineland tribes,
chiefly worship Mercury, to whom on certain days they think it
lawful to offer human sacrifice. 3 The Batavians dedicated
votive tablets to Mercury, either alone (one of these is to
Mercurio Regi ) or with Hercules (the native Donar) and
Mars (Tiu). An altar to Mercurio Channini has been found
in the upper Ahr region. Mercury here stands for Wodan.
Jonas of Bobbio speaks of the god Vodan as Mercury, and Paulus
Diaconus says that Gwoden is called Mercury by the Romans. 4
Wodan is thus probably the Mercury mentioned with Jupiter
in the eighth century Indiculus Superstitionum (c. as gods to


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


38

whom sacrifices were offered and whose festivals were observed
by the Saxons even in Christian times.

The cult of Wodan was thus found over a wide area, but it is
generally believed that it spread outward from one central re-
gion — Lower Germany, or that, if in most places indigenous,
it grew in importance through influences from that central re-
gion. The Saxons, Frisians, and Franks gave Wodan a high
place. When the Saxons entered England in the fifth century,
Woden was their principal god, from whom chiefs and kings
claimed descent . 5 He was still the god whom the Saxons in their
native region were forced to renounce at baptism in the eighth
century, along with other gods . 6

An interesting legend regarding the Lombards, who had been
neighbours of the Saxons, is, preserved by Paulus Diaconus, and
relates to the time of their southward migration in the fifth cen-
tury. Paulus calls them Vinili, and says that when they en-
countered the Vandals, the latter implored victory from Godan
(Wodan), who replied that he would give it to those whom he
saw first at sunrise. Gambara, mother of the Lombard leaders,
now approached Wodan’s consort, Frea, and begged her for vic-
tory. Frea gave the advice that the Lombard women should
join the men with their hair hanging over their faces, in order to
give them a bearded appearance. Wodan, looking from his win-
dows towards the East, would see them. This advice was fol-
lowed, and Wodan, seeing the Lombards, asked: ‘ Who are these
Longobardi? ’ (Longbeards, Lombards). Frea replied that he
ought to grant victory to those on whom he had conferred a
name, and this Wodan did. According to Paulus, Wodan was
worshipped by all the German tribes. This legend is related
by earlier writers with variations. Wodan’s seat is in the sky,
just as in the Eddas he looks over the world from his seat
Hlidskjalf, and is giver of victory . 7

The Alemanni were influenced by the Franks in religious
matters. S. Columbanus found them sacrificing to Wuotan, and
the Merseburg charm, found in Alemannic territory, shows that


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


39

Wodan, as a god of healing or of magic, was known to one of
their tribes, possibly the Thuringians . 8

Saxo relates myths of Othinus among the Danes and repre-
sents him as their chief god. How far a cult of Wodan was
indigenous in Denmark is uncertain, for Saxo’s sources are in
part Norwegian and Icelandic as well as Danish.

In the Scandinavian region, as is seen from the native litera-
ture, Odin appears as chief god, head of a pantheon which, in
Snorri’s Edda , seems to be imitated from classical sources.
There is some evidence that this position was given to him in
the Viking age, from the eighth century onwards, and mainly
in royal and aristocratic circles, and that he was much less god
of the folk, with whom Thor had a higher place. In Adam of
Bremen’s account of the Swedish deities, Wodan, god of war,
has a lower place than Thor . 9 The accounts in Snorri and
Saxo of Odin’s coming to Scandinavia from Saxland, where he
had reigned for a long time, may contain a kernel of truth —
the cult of the high god Wodan (Odin), the Saxa-god, god of
the Saxons’ land, coming from there to Scandinavia . 10

[Prometheus]

The interpretatio Romana of Wodan as Mercury is not clear,
but Csesar had regarded the chief god of the Gauls as equivalent
to Mercury. That god was described by him as £ the inventor
of arts, guide of travellers, and possessing great influence over
bargains and commerce .’ 11 Tacitus and later writers may have
regarded Wodan in the light of what they knew of the Gaulish
god. Tacitus does in fact mention Mars in close connexion with
the German Mercury, as if the latter were also a War-god. If
his functions resembled those of the Gaulish Mercury, these
find a certain parallel in what is said of Odin in Hyndluljod
by Freyja. He gives gold to his followers, weapons and armour
to heroes, triumph to some, treasure to others, to many wisdom
and skill in words, fair winds to sailors, to the poet his art, to
heroes valour. In other Eddie attributes of Odin there is a
further resemblance — his skill in arts, his mastery in magic,
his description as a traveller. Like Mercury he was a god or


40


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


leader of the dead. Both gods were depicted with hat and
staff. In spite of this, the identification with Mercury still
remains a problem, especially when we consider the warlike
aspect of Odin. As he appears in the Eddas , Odin is on the
one hand a War-god who gives victory or defeat. On the
other hand, he is concerned with wisdom, magic, cunning, and
poetry, of which he was creator, according to the skalds.

Snorri says that the Swedes believed that Odin appeared in
dreams before great battles, giving victory to some or inviting
some to himself, and either lot was thought good. We may
compare with this Adam of Bremen’s account of Odin as wor-
shipped by the Swedes at Upsala. £ Wodan carries on wars, and
gives courage to men against their foes.’ He also says that his
image resembled that of the Roman Mars. Obviously Odin’s
functions as a War-god had become prominent, and he had
taken the place of the god Tyr, if this deity was a god of war.
Tyr’s place is quite subordinate in the Eddas.

The name Wodan (OHG Wuotan, OS Wodan, AS Woden,
ON Ofienn) is found in the OHG personal name Wuotunc and
in the appellative wo tan, glossed tyr annus. Wode, Wude,
Wute, and the like, names of the leader of the Furious Host,
Wudes Heer, are probably dialect forms of Wodan. The
Furious Host was the storm personified as a host of spirits rush-
ing through the air with their leader, who had many local names.
The derivations of the name Wodan vary. It has been con-
nected with a root wod, found in Old Teutonic wodo , 1 mad,’
‘ furious,’ and ON op-r , ‘poetic frenzy ’ (cf. Irish faith , Latin
vates). This would refer the name to the god’s attributes in
connexion with poetry and poetic inspiration. With this deriva-
tion may be noted Adam of Bremen’s explanation: 1 Wodan , id
est furor? Another suggested derivation is that which connects
Wodan with Indo-Germanic wd , 1 to blow,’ with the idea that
the god in his earliest form was a spirit or god of the wind, and,
as the spirits of the dead were supposed to wander in the wind,
a spirit or god of the dead. The traditions of the Furious Host,


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


4i


spread all over the Germanic area and traced back to medieval
times, are held to prove that Wodan had once been known to all
Germanic peoples in the aspect of the leader of the Furious
Host. With some of the groups he attained a much higher
position, ultimately becoming the chief god. Before the evi-
dence for this is set forth, it is well to consider that medieval
tradition is somewhat doubtful as an index of belief in the
pagan period. The leadership of the Furious Host was apt
to be given now to this, now to that personage, and often to one
with a bad reputation . 12 As all pagan gods were regarded in
Christian times as sinister and demoniac, is it not possible that
Wodan, as a discredited deity, was popularly made leader of
what was known to be a demoniac host, and that he had not
been so regarded in pagan times?

The name 4 daz wuetunde Her ’ or 4 wutendes Heer ,’ 4 Furi-
ous Host,’ is found in the thirteenth century, and is connected
etymologically with 4 Wuotes Heer,’ 4 Wuotunges Heer,’
4 Wodan’s Host,’ mentioned in fourteenth century writings . 13
German tradition still preserves the memory of Wodan’s Host.
When the Host is heard by the Mecklenburg peasant, he cries
4 de Wode tut,’ 4 Wode passes,’ or, as in Pomerania and Hol-
stein, 4 Wode jaget ,’ 4 Wode hunts.’ A furious tempest is called
4 Wudes Heer ’ in the Eifel . 14 4 Wutes ’ or 4 Mutes Heer ’ is
known in Suabia as is 4 Wuetes Heer ’ in Bavaria. Wotn hunts
in Austria, and the belief in 4 das wiitende Heer ’ is widespread,
the Host being led by different personages . 15 In Swedish folk-
tradition (Smaland) 4 Oden’s jagt ’ is known, and in storms the
folk say, 4 Oden far forbi ’ or 4 Odin jager.’ Here Odin rides,
wearing a broad-brimmed hat, with two or more hounds. Else-
where in Scandinavia howling wind is thought to be caused by
the rolling of Odin’s wagon . 16

The main aspects of the Furious Host are found in the leader,
often wearing a cloak and a broad hat, and riding a white or
black horse, with a number of hounds, and in his train of fol-
lowers, among whom are sometimes souls — those not good


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


42

enough for Heaven nor bad enough for Hell, or the unbaptized,
suicides, and the like, these probably taking the place of an
earlier more general throng of the dead. The Host rushes
along with noise and shouting, hunting animals or the Moss-
wives, the Wood-wife, the Mer- woman, or other female elfins.
It appears in autumn or spring, but generally in the Twelve
Nights, from Christmas to Epiphany. Generally the Host
presages evil or works harm, but sometimes when it is heard as
soft music, it betokens a good harvest. In order to escape injury
from it, one should fall on one’s face, or keep the middle of
the road, or run to a wayside cross, or to the cross-roads. Many
stories are told of adventures of wayfarers with', the Host, and
it has often a hellish aspect . 17 The leader often bears some form
of the name Hackelberg, the equivalent of Hakel-berend, ‘ the
Mantle-wearer.’ Another name for him is Breit-hut or ‘ Broad
Hat.’

In some degree corresponding to this in Norse mythology,
and perhaps pointing to Odin as god of the wind, are the names
given to him. He is called Vafud, Vegtam (‘ Wanderer ’),
Gangler (‘Traveller’), Omi (‘ Noisy one’), Vidforull (‘Far-
traveller ’), or, as in Saxo, viator indefessus , ‘ unwearied travel-
ler,’ or in Snorri’s Helmskringla y ‘ the far travelled.’ He says
in Vafthrudnismal ‘ much have I travelled,’ or ‘long have I
travelled .’ 18 We hear in Harbardsljod of his journeys, and in
a story of his appearing to king Olaf, he tells him of his travels.
Whether all this denotes that Odin was an earlier god of the
wind may be doubted, but it suggests that, as traveller, he is
akin to the Gaulish Mercury, god of travellers, as well as to the
classic god Mercury.

One of the magic runes which Odin knows points to his power
over the wind. If there is need to shelter his ship, he calms the
wind and makes the waves sleep by its means. He gives fair
winds to sailors, as Freyja says in Hyndluljod. The storm
subsides when Odin, the man from the mountain, goes on board
Sigurd’s ship . 19 Odin, as god of cargoes, Farma-tyr, may have


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


43

been so called because he gave fair winds, and was thus a god
worshipped by sailors. 20

To the appearance of the leader of the Host corresponds that
of Odin with his cloak, under which he conveys his proteges
through the air, 21 his broad-brimmed hat, and his long grey
beard, giving rise to his names Sidhottr (‘with broad hat’),
Harbard ( £ grey beard ’), and Skidskegg ( £ long beard ’). He
also rides through sea and air the famous grey, eight-legged
steed, Sleipnir, £ best of all horses,’ born of Loki in the form of
a mare to the giant’s stallion Svadilfari. 22 Baldrs Draumar
gives a picture of Odin saddling Sleipnir and riding down to
Niflhel to consult the Volva about Balder’s baleful dreams,
On Sleipnir he rides daily to Urd’s well to the divine tribunal,
and, after Balder’s death, Odin’s son, Hermod, rode Sleipnir
to Hel to offer a ransom for Balder. 23 Snorri depicts Odin
riding forth with gold helmet, birnie, and his spear Gungnir, to
fight at the end of all things. 24 The name of the world-tree,
Yggdrasil, means c Ygg’s horse,’ Ygg ( c the Terrible ’) being a
name of Odin’s. 25 The true name of the tree is Askr Yggdrasils
( £ the ash of Yggdrasil ’ or c of Odin’s steed ’). 26 The gallows
is also called Odin’s steed, and he is galga valdyr ( £ lord of the
gallows ’) and hanga-tyr ( £ god of the hanged ’). The gallows
was a steed ridden by the hanged, and Odin himself had hung
on a tree (whether Yggdrasil or another) for nine nights, as is
told in Havamal. Later legend knew of a smith in Nesjar in
1208 a.e>. to whom came a rider asking him to shoe his horse.
The smith had never seen such large horseshoes nor heard of
such journeys as the stranger told him he had undertaken in a
brief space of time. Then the stranger revealed himself as Odin
and bade the smith watch how he would leap his horse over a
hedge seven ells high. Having done this, horse and rider van-
ished. Four nights later a great battle was fought. 27 In the
same way the Furious Host was sometimes a precursor of battle,
but it must be confessed that, apart from the rather forced sug-
gestions of Odin as a rider and the like, the Eddas do not sup-


44 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY

port the theory of the god’s origin in a leader of the Furious
Host.

As the wind was believed to rest in a hill in calm weather and
to come forth in a storm, so the Furious Host sometimes comes
from a hill and goes to a hill. If we regard the dead as follow-
ing in the train of the Host or of Wodan, then we may conceive
of them as dwelling in a hollow hill ruled over by the god. To
this corresponds the numerous mountain names such as
Wodenesberg, Wodnesbeorh ( mons Wodeni ), Othensberg,
Odensberg, Gudenesberg. 28 When Regin and Sigurd were in
a storm at sea, a man was seen standing on a mountain. As the
ship passed he asked who they were, and when Regin told him
and demanded his name, he replied that he was called Hnikar,
£ Thruster,’ but now they must call him Karl aj berge , £ the man
of the mountain.’ He was Odin. Gudrun speaks of Sigtyr’s
( £ the Victory-god’s) mountain in Atlakvitha . 29 In this con-
ception of Odin or Wodan as god of a mountain and of the
mountain as a place of the dead, may be seen the germ of the
Valhall myth as developed in the Viking age (see p. 315).
To die was £ to journey to Odin ’ {til Odins far a), op £ to be a
guest with Odin,’ or £ to visit Odin,’ and similar phrases with
the same meaning were used of Valhall. Saxo tells how Odin,
as a man of amazing height called Rostarus, cured Siward’s
wounds on condition of his consecrating to him the souls of all
slain by him in battle. So the Landnama-bok tells how Helgi
said, when Thorgrim was slain: £ I gave Asmod’s heir to
Odin.’ 30

Epithets of Odin’s show his connexion with the dead. He is
drauga drottinn , £ lord of the ghosts ’ ; hanga drottinn , £ lord of
the hanged hanga tyr and hanga-god } £ god of the hanged
galga valdr , £ lord of the gallows ’; valgautr , £ god of the
slain.’ 31 Souls of those slain by violence go in the Furious
Host, and souls of heroes go to Odin in Valhall. Hence, too, he
was called val-fadir , £ father of the slain,’ because, as Snorri says,
£ all that fall in battle are sons of his adoption ’ ( oski synir ). 32


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


45


Valkjosandi, £ chooser of the slain,’ is one of Odin’s titles in
Kormaks-saga.

According to Grimnismal Odin in Gladsheim, £ the world of
joy,’ where the wide, gold-shining Valhall lies, chooses daily
those who are to fall in strife. For them, says Snorri, he ap-
points Valhall, £ Hall of the slain,’ and Vingolf, £ friendly
Floor.’ Hence £ the way of the slain ’ is the way to Val-
hall . 33 The Valkyries, £ Choosers of the slain,’ were sent by
Odin to every battle; they determined men’s feyness and
awarded victory and took the slain . 34 They were called Wish-
maidens, because they fulfilled Odin’s wishes about the slain . 35
On one occasion Odin, as god of the dead, acted as ferryman of
the dead to the Other World. Sinfjotli’s body was carried by
Sigmund to a f j ord, where was a boat with a man in it, who of-
fered to take Sigmund across. But when he had carried the body
into the boat there was no place for Sigmund, and the man dis-
appeared with the body. He was Odin , 36 and the incident illus-
trates the belief in the dead being ferried over to the region of
the dead. In Harbardsljod Odin, as Harbard, appears as a
ferryman.

Although Odin’s lofty character is emphasized by Snorri and
in the court poetry of the skalds, both in his Edda and still more
in the Eddie poems Odin appears in lower aspects. Indeed, in
these poems Odin is hardly at all the lofty War-god and the
creator who appears in skaldic verse, much less the supreme god
of a pantheon. Especially is his connexion with magic empha-
sized. He is aldenn gautr , £ the enchanter old ’; galdrs fadir ,
£ father of magic,’ and he spoke magic and mighty charms to the
dead Volva whom he had raised, yet required to seek knowledge
of Balder’s fate from her . 37 Loki accused Odin of having once
worked charms like witches in Samsey, disguising himself as a
witch and going thus among men . 38 Saxo tells how Odin dis-
guised himself as a soldier and struck Rinda with a piece of bark
on which were written charms (runes), thus driving her to
frenzy. This was already referred to by the skald Kormak in


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


46

the line 1 Odin wrought charms on Rind.’ 39 From Hlebard the
giant Odin got a magic wand ( gambante'm ) and then stole away
his understanding; and Odin admits that he learned scornful
language from the dead in their hills. Both incidents occur in
Harbardsljod . 40 As in the Merseburg charm where Odin is
found curing a lame horse by a charm or magic rune, so in
Havamal he describes the power of the magic songs known to
him. They bring help in sickness and sorrow, and in witchcraft 5
they produce fetters and blunt an enemy’s weapons} they break
fetters} they stop the swiftest arrows; they neutralize the dan-
ger of a root on which magic runes are written and turn the
danger against the sender; they quench fire, remove hatred,
calm the wind, work on House-riders or witches, aid friends in
fight, make a hanged man talk to him, give knowledge of the
gods and elves, and win love. One of these had been sung by
the dwarf Thjodrorir, who sang 1 strength to the Aisir, success
to the Alfar, and wisdom to Hroptatyr ’ (Odin). 41

When Mimir’s head was sent by the Vanir to the ^Esir, Odin
embalmed it and spoke magic runes over it, so that it might
impart wisdom to him at any time. It told him tidings from
other worlds. Voluspa refers to this when, before the Doom of
the gods, Odin is said to give heed to the head of Mimir, and in
Sigrdrifumal he is depicted with sword and helmet, standing
on a mountain and consulting Mimir’s head. 42 Elsewhere it is
Mimir himself whom Odin consults. This recalls Celtic myth
and custom about heads. Those of enemies were offered to
divinities. Bodies or heads of warriors had a powerful influence,
and the head of the Brythonic god Bran, when cut off, preserved
the land from invasion, and, in its presence, time passed as a
dream. 43 Odin, called Hropt, is said to have arranged thought-
runes out of the draught which dropped from the head of Heith-
draupnir and the horn of Hoddrofnir, both probably names of
Mimir. To Odin Loddfafnir owes his magic knowledge. 44

As a result of his magic powers Odin takes different forms,
that of a ferryman, a servant or peasant, a snake, an eagle, as







PLATE VII


Odin

Odin riding, with helmet, spear, and shield. The
birds are his ravens. See p. 65. Part of a helmet
found in the royal graves at Vendel, Sweden, and
dating from c. 900 a.d. From Stolpe and Arne, V en -
del-jyndet. See pp. 58, 217.






THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


47

in myths presently to be given. Hence he is called Fjolnir,
‘ the many-shaped . 5 45

To this corresponds Snorri’s euhemerized account of Odin in
his Ynglinga-saga. He was far-seeing and wise in wizardry.
He waked the dead and would sit under hanged men, to obtain
knowledge from them. By words alone he slaked fire or stilled
the sea, and would turn the wind in whatever way he desired.
He knew the fate of men and things in the future, or how to
work ill or to take strength and wit from men and give these
to others. Of all buried treasure did he know, as well as runes to
open the earth, mountains, rocks, and mounds, and how to bind
their inmates with words. Then he would go in and take what
he wished. He would change his shape, and while his body
lay as if asleep or dead, he himself was in a bird or wild beast,
a fish or worm, and he would go in the twinkling of an eye on his
own errands or those of others . 48 All this is merely the cur-
rent belief in magical practices and assumed possible actions re-
flected back on Odin, who in this aspect resembles a shaman.

In this aspect, also, so prominent in the Eddie poems as com-
pared with those of the court poets, we see a somewhat different
Odin from Odin the supreme god of a pantheon and god of
war. He is altogether on a lower level, and perhaps we may
suppose that this was the popular view of him, as contrasted with
that of the aristocracy, the warriors and skalds.

This lower aspect of Odin is seen in what is said of his
amours, of which he boasts, and we hear how he sometimes made
women or giantesses his victims by means of magic runes. He
wrought charms on Rind the giantess, who bore him a son Vali
or Ali, the avenger of Balder . 47 This is much elaborated in
Saxo. Rind, called by Saxo Rinda, is in this account daughter
of the king of the Ruthenians. After Balder’s death Odin,
though chief of the gods, enquired of prophets and diviners
how to avenge his son, and one of these, a Finn, said that a
son must be born to him by Rinda. Odin, as a soldier, gained
her father’s favour, but Rinda would have nothing to say to


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


48

him. Next year as one skilled in smith-craft, he made many
wonderful things for the king and for Rinda, who still refused
him. Again as a soldier he sought to win her and tried to kiss
her, but she repelled him. He now touched her with a piece of
bark on which runes were written, and she became like one in
frenzy. Then as a maiden with skill in leechcraft, he said that
he would cure Rinda. So he gained access to her, and now
accomplished his desires. The child born was called Bous, not
Vali, as in the Eddas. iS

In Harbardsljod Odin boasts of overcoming seven sisters,
and of working much love-craft with the Night-riders or
witches, alluring them by stealth from their husbands. He
had also an amour with a £ linen-white ’ maid, and with Grid,
mother of Vidarr. 49

[Prometheus]

Two stories, both put in Odin’s mouth, show little reverence
for him and are told from a humorous point of view. Both are
found in Havamal , and a verse stating that lacking the desired
joy is worse than sickness, precedes the first story, that of Bil-
ling’s daughter. Odin lay in the reeds awaiting her who was
dear to him as his life. He entered the house 5 she was asleep
on her bed, bright as the sun for beauty. She bade him come
at evening in secret, but when he did so, a band of warriors with
torches prevented his entering. He returned at early morning
when all were asleep, only to find a dog tied to her bed. So he
draws the moral : ‘ many fair maids are found fickle.’ 50

The same poem gives briefly the story of Odin’s acquiring
the poetic mead and his love affair with Gunnlod, daughter of
the giant Suttung. This is prefaced by the saying that good
memory and eloquence are needful to the sage, as Odin found in
the hall of the old giant Suttung, over-reaching Gunnlod £ with
many words.’ With the snout of Rati he penetrated the rocks
and so entered the place. Gunnlod gave him a draught of the
mead from her golden seat: poor was his recompense to her.
He got the mead Odrorir as well as Gunnlod’s favours. Had
he not won her, hardly would he have returned from the giants’


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


49

halls. Next day the Frost-giants came to ask about Hor (Odin)
in his hall. They asked whether Bolverk had returned to the
gods, or had Suttung slain him — Bolverk being the name under
which Odin had passed. The episode ends by saying that Odin
had forsworn himself: how can he be trusted? He defrauded
Suttung of the mead and left Gunnlod in grief. This myth is
also mentioned in earlier stanzas of Havamal , where Odin
speaks of being overcome with beer, c fettered with the feathers
of the bird of forgetfulness (the heron) in Gunnlod’s abode,
very drunk in the house of wise Fjallar ’ (Suttung ). 51

Miss Martin Clarke has compared these two stories with each
other and with that of Odin and Rinda, and has suggested that
all three may be versions of the poetic mead myth, mutilated in
the Billing’s daughter and Rinda stories. In all three there are
a hero, a reluctant lady, a wooing, a crafty disguise or stealth, a
definite purpose, and a final success in the Gunnlod and Rinda
stories, a rebuff in the third tale. But, interesting as the sug-
gestion is, the Rinda story has a purpose quite distinct from that
of the mead story, viz., to obtain a son who will avenge Balder’s
death.

Odin was not always victorious. With Loki and Hoenir he
was overcome by Hreidmar after killing Otter, and forced
to pay wergild or be slain . 52 In Lokasenna Odin shows him-
self frightened for Loki, and it is Thor, not Odin, who silences
him.

In spite of his wide knowledge, if not omniscience, Odin re-
quires to seek knowledge, especially of the future. This he
obtains from the Volva, who recites the drama of the last things,
or from a dead seeress who tells of Balder’s fate. Again he
obtains knowledge from the giant Suttung’s mead, from the
giant Vafthrudnir, from the dead or spirits or dwarfs, and from
Mimir . 53 Odin is called £ friend of Mimir,’ who is perhaps a
water-spirit, with his well beneath one of the roots of Yggdrasil ;
in this well wisdom and understanding are stored. Hence
Mimir himself is full of wisdom and drinks of the well from


50


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


the Gjallar-horn. To him came Odin and desired a drink of
the well, but Mimir withheld it until he had given his eye in
pledge. Now the eye is hidden in the well, and Mimir is said
to drink every morning from this pledge, perhaps regarded as
some kind of vessel, or out of it is poured water for the tree.
The picture of Mimir drinking from Odin’s eye is perhaps the
mistake of a later redactor of the poem, as Boer has shown . 54
Odin consults Mimir, as when he rides to his well to take
counsel with him before the Doom of the gods, but elsewhere,
as has been seen, he consults Mimir’s head . 55

Another picture is given of Odin with the goddess Saga, daily
drinking in gladness from golden cups out of the cool waves of
her abode, Sokkvabekk (‘sinking stream,’ ‘torrent’). Saga
has been regarded by Gering as a form of Frigg, Odin’s con-
sort, or by Grimm as Odin’s daughter or wife, but Snorri men-
tions her separately from Frigg as second of the goddesses,
and he describes Sokkvabekk as ‘ a great abode.’ Golther
considers Saga to be a female water-elfin, dwelling in
the stream, and visited by Odin to obtain knowledge, which
is thus again connected with the water, or to carry on a love
affair . 56

Odin is the possessor of magic runes, or even their creator,
according to Havamal. He, ‘ the chief of singers,’ coloured
them — an allusion to the practice of reddening the engraved
runes, e.g., with blood; and he as ‘ ruler ’ or ‘ speaker ’ of the
gods wrote or carved them. Another section of Havamal tells
in an obscure manner how Odin came to possess magic runes: —

‘ I know that I hung
On the wind-stirred tree
Nine nights long,

Wounded by spear,

Consecrated to Odin,

Myself to myself;

On the mighty tree
Of which no man knows
Out of what root it springs.


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


5i


No one refreshed me
With horn or bread;

I looked downward.

I took up the runes,

Shrieking I took them,

Then I fell to the ground.

Bestla’s brother,

Son of Bolthorn,

Taught me nine mighty songs;

And a drink I obtained
Of the choice mead
Out of Odrorir.

Then I began to thrive
And gained wisdom.

I grew and felt well;

One word led to another.

One deed to another.’ 57

These lines and their meaning have been much discussed,
and it is not certain that all the stanzas belong together. They
may be fragments from different poems. The third stanza
suggests an interpolation from a poetic form of the myth of the
mead stolen from Suttung, ‘ of which,’ says Snorri, £ he who
drinks becomes a skald.’ Three myths of the gaining of runes
or wisdom seem to be conjoined as a narrative in three acts, as
shown by Boer. These are ( 1 ) a myth of Odin’s acquiring runes
by hanging on a tree and wounded by a spear, an offering to
himself. He bows his head and looks down, perhaps into the
deep, and takes up the runes, falling now from the tree to the
ground. How he took up runes while hanging is not clear:
perhaps a magical act is intended. The tree is taken to be
Yggdrasil by most commentators, but is it? The whole pas-
sage is puzzling, and no other evidence exists to support this
view of the tree.

(2) The second rune myth refers to Odin’s learning magic
songs from the son of Bolthorn who is father of Bestla, Odin’s
mother. If the son of Bolthorn dwells at the foot of the tree,


5 2 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY

he might be Mimir, who also has such an abode, and who is thus
Odin’s uncle.

(3) The third rune myth tells how Odin obtained a draught
of the mead out of Odrorir, possibly through use of these magic

58

songs.

Whether Odin’s hanging on the tree is to be connected with
the idea that Yggdrasil is Odin’s gallows is uncertain. Bugge
supposed that the lines are a reflexion from Christian belief
regarding the Crucifixion, yet even so, some older Odin myth
may underlie them. There is perhaps some link with human
sacrifice to Odin by hanging the victim on a tree and stabbing
him. Odin himself, regarded as a king in Snorri’s euhemerized
account, died in bed but was yet marked with a spear-point, and
claimed as his own all who died by weapons. 69 A mythic story
of such a sacrifice is told in the Gautreks-saga. The ships of
king Vikar had encountered a great storm and the sacrificial
chips had indicated that it was necessary to propitiate Odin by
a human victim. The lot fell on the king himself, and all were
now in such fear that it was resolved to defer the sacrifice till
next day. Meanwhile Odin desired his foster-son, the hero
Starkad, to bring about Vikar’s death, in return for his favours
to him. He told him what he must do. Next day, when the
counsellors suggested that a mere mock sacrifice of Vikar should
be made, Starkad gave directions how this should be done.
Vikar was made to stand on the stump of a tree and a noose
made of the entrails of a newly slaughtered calf was placed
round his neck and attached to a branch, which Starkad held
down. Then he thrust at Vikar with a reed which Odin had
given him and which now became a spear, at the same time
letting go the branch. The noose became a strong rope: the
stump was overturned; and thus Vikar was both hung and
stabbed. As these changes occurred, Starkad said: £ Now I give
you to Odin.’ co

A fuller version of the Odrorir myth is given by Snorri in the
Bragarcedur as an explanation of the origin of the art of poetry.


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 53

Here it is connected with the war between ASsir and Vanir. To
establish a pledge of peace between the two parties, both of them
spat into a vessel. This is doubtless derived from some folk-
custom, of which there are examples from other regions, show-
ing that the saliva-rite is analogous to the blood-covenant. 61
This saliva now becomes the subject of a further myth, for, as
is obvious, if the saliva of men is important in folk-belief, that
of gods must have greater virtues. The Ttsir took the contents
of the vessel and out of the saliva formed the being Kvasir, who
was so wise that to every question about anything he could give
the right answer. He went everywhere instructing men, until
the dwarfs Fjalar and Galarr slew him, and collected his blood
in the kettle Odrorir and in the vats Son and Bodn. They
blended honey with the blood, and so formed the mead of which
whoso drinks becomes a skald. These dwarfs, having drowned
the giant Gilling and slain his wife, were set on a reef by
Suttung, the son of the giant pair. Over this reef the waters
poured at high tide, and to save themselves they offered him the
precious mead as a satisfaction. Suttung hid it in the rock
Hnitbj org, and set his daughter Gunnlod to watch it.

The story then goes on to tell how the ASsir came into pos-
session of the mead. Odin set out and came to a place where
nine thralls were mowing. He took out a hone from his belt
and sharpened their scythes so that they cut better than ever
before. As they wished to possess the hone, he threw it up in
the air, and when they rushed to catch it, each struck his scythe
against the other’s neck. Odin now went to the giant Baugi,
Suttung’s brother, to seek a night’s lodging. Baugi was be-
wailing the loss of his thralls, and Odin, calling himself Bolverk,
offered to do their work, asking as wage a draught of Suttung’s
mead. Baugi said that he had no control over it, but neverthe-
less went with Odin to Suttung when harvest was over. When
Suttung heard of the bargain, he refused to grant a drop of the
mead. Odin, as Bolverk, now suggested certain wiles to
Baugi, who agreed to them. He drew out the auger Rati,


54


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


‘ Gnawer,’ and bade Baugi pierce the rock with it. When the
hole was made, Bolverk changed himself into a serpent and
crawled through it. Baugi, who had tried to deceive him in
boring the hole, thrust at him with the auger but missed him.
Bolverk now went to the place where Gunnlod was and slept
with her for three nights. Then she gave him three draughts
of the mead. With the first draught he emptied Odrorir; with
the second Bodn, with the third Son, and thus gained all the
mead. Turning himself into an eagle, he flew off swiftly.
Suttung saw the eagle in flight, and himself as an eagle pursued
it. When the Aisir saw Odin approach, they set out vats, and
Odin, entering Asgard, spat out the mead into these. But he
was so nearly caught by Suttung that he sent some mead back-
wards. No heed was taken of it; whosoever would might have
it: it is called the poetaster’s part. Odin gave the mead to the
^Esir and to those men who have the ability of composition.

In this tale and in one of the Havamal passages the vessel
containing the mead is called Odrorir; in the other Havamal
passage it is the mead itself that is so called. The myth has
some likeness to the Indian Soma myth. Soma is medicinal and
immortal; it has to do with poetry and stimulates speech. It
was acquired through a Soma plant having been brought from
the mountains by an eagle, and Indra on one occasion is called
an eagle in connexion with Soma . 62 The story has some rela-
tion to the numerous folk-tales in which the wife or daughter
of a giant or monster aids a hero who escapes with the giant’s
treasure.

The poetic mead is now in possession of Odin, but it was first,
like all wisdom, as V afthrudnismal suggests, in the possession
of giants. Hence Odin gives wisdom to many, and to the poets
their art. Egil, though resenting his being deprived of his sons
by Odin, says that Mimir’s friend has given him a recompense
in the gift of the poetic art. The hero Starkad obtained from
Odin the art of poetry or the composing of spells. A poet
called himself £ ,Ygg’s (Odin’s) ale-bearer,’ and poetry is styled


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


55


1 gift,’ 1 find,’ £ drink,’ £ booty ’ of Odin, or £ Odin’s mead,’
1 Odin’s kettle-liquor,’ as well as £ liquid of the dwarfs,’ £ Gunn-
lod’s liquor,’ £ Kvasir’s blood,’ £ Suttung’s mead,’ and the like,
with reference to this story . 63 Odin was thus god of the skalds,
to whom he gave their gift of verse.

The Havamal or £ words of the High One ’ (Odin) sets forth
a long array of wise sayings applicable to the incidents and con-
duct of daily life. Then follows the Odrorir story ; a series of
counsels addressed to Loddfafnirj the story of Odin and the
runes j and a list of runes or rather of the effects of such runes.
The whole seems to be intended as a kind of summary of
Odin’s wisdom due, as we may suppose, to the actions recorded
in the myths. That Odin should be god of poetry at a time
when poetry had been so highly developed in the North, may
be a development of his being lord of magic runes, which were
in verse form. £ All his craft he taught by runes,’ says Snorri in
the Y nglinga-saga , and again: £ In measures did he speak all
things, even such as skald-craft now uses .’ 64 Save for the
Odrorir myth, it is Odin’s invention or possession of magic runes
which is emphasized in the Eddie poems, thus laying stress on
his character as a master of magic, winner and user of runes.
According to Havamal Odin made runes for the Aisir, as Dainn
did for the Alfar, Dvalinn for the dwarfs, and Asvid for the
giants . 65

Odin’s position as god of war is not prominent in the Eddie
poems. Even in Harbardsljod , where he boasts of his exploits,
he does not speak much of warlike deeds. That he became god
of war is undoubted. Though Tacitus equates Wodan with
Mercury, the human sacrifices offered to him can hardly be ex-
plained otherwise than as sacrifices to a War-god. Odin caused
the first war, that between yEsir (of whom Odin alone is named)
and Vanir. As V oluspa says: £ He hurled his spear on the host,
and war then came first into the world.’ According to Harbards-
ljod and Helgi H undin gsb ana , he causes war, makes princes
angry, brings peace never, and raises strife even between kindred


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


56

by means of spiteful runes, and is guilty of all ill. 00 This is
corroborated by the old pagan proverb: ‘ Odin sets kings war-
ring ’; and by Saxo, who tells how the god, disguised as Brun,
Harald’s counsellor, shook the union of the kings by his treach-
ery, and sowed strife so guilefully that he caused hatred among
men bound by friendship and kin, which seemed unappeasable
save by war. 6. In Harbardsljod Odin speaks of his presence
with the host 5 in Lokasenna he is charged by Loki with partial-
ity, giving victory to those who do not deserve it. He is angry
when victory is given against his will, as by the Valkyrie Bryn-
hild to Agnar, and for this he casts her into a magic sleep by
means of a sleep-thorn. 63 He takes part in the battles of men
and helps his favourites to victory. Hence men entreat his
favour and he promises victory. 69 To his favourites he gives
weapons. Dag, son of Hogni, sacrificed to Odin in order to be
avenged of his father’s death. Odin gave him his spear, which
made victory sure. Freyja in Hyndluljod says that to his
followers he gives gold, to Hermod helm and coat of mail, to
Sigmund a sword, and triumph to some. 70 A curious statement
in Helgi Hundingsbana says that Odin gave to Helgi co-rule
with himself when he came to Valhall. 71

Saxo shows how Odin is patron of heroes and kings. When
Hadding was passing Norway with his fleet, an old man on the
shore signed to him with his mantle to put ashore. In spite of
opposition, Hadding did this, took him on board, and was taught
how to order his army in the wedge formation attributed to
Odin. When the army was thus disposed, the old man stood
behind it and shot ten arrows at the enemy, and also overcame
the rain-storm caused by their spells, driving it back and causing
a mist. Before leaving, he told Hadding that he would die
by his own hand, and bade him prefer glorious to obscure wars,
and those with remote rather than with neighbouring people.
The old man was Odin. A later passage tells how he was the
discoverer and imparter of the wedge-shaped formation. In
the likeness of Brun, he set Harald’s army in this array, but the


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


57


army of Ring, Harald’s opponent, was also found to be in the
same formation, doubtless also taught them by Odin. Already
Odin, as a one-eyed old man, of great height, in a hairy mantle,
had appeared to Harald, revealing to him that he was Odin,
versed in the practice of war, and instructing him regarding this
wedge formation . 72

Odin went forth with the host to battle, and, in Saxo, we see
him not only provoking war between Harald and Ring, but in
the form of Brun taking part in the battle. Harald besought
him to give victory to the Danes, promising to dedicate to him
the spirits of all who fell. Odin remained unmoved, thrust the
king out of his chariot, and slew him with his own weapon . 73
This personal share of the god in battle in order to secure vic-
tims, occurs elsewhere. His desire was to fill Valhall with
chosen warriors, einherjar , who would aid the gods in time of
need. Hence he caused death to his favourites, even in the
hour of victory, or they were foredoomed to slay themselves,
like Hadding, or their death was brought about by Odin at the
hands of another, as Vikar’s by Starkad . 74 The clearest state-
ment of this is found in Eiriksmal. Sigmund asked Odin why
he robbed Eirik of life, seeing that Odin regarded him as a
mighty warrior. Odin answered that it was because none knew
when the grey wolf would come to the seat of the gods . 75

The Valkyries were sent to battle-fields to choose those who
were to die. As these helmeted maids rode forth, their corselets
were besprinkled with blood, and from their spears sparks flew
forth . 76

[Prometheus]

Sacrifices, even of human victims, were offered to Odin for
victory, and also after a victory, when prisoners were sacrificed,
though such sacrifices may have been less common in Norway
than in Denmark and Sweden. Hence we hear of a leader de-
voting the enemy to Odin, or shouting to the opposing army:

{ Odin has you all.’ Reflexions of this are found in some of
Saxo’s references to Odin, as when he cured Siward’s wounds,
on condition of his devoting the slain to him, or when Harald


58 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY

offered him the souls of the slain. Earlier in his life Harald
had vowed to Odin all souls cast forth from their bodies by his
sword, because of Odin’s boon to him. He received such
favours from Odin, whose oracle was supposed to be the cause
of his birth, that steel could not injure him, and shafts which
wounded others could do him no harm. 77

Snorri’s euhemerized account of Odin speaks of him as a
great warrior, who made many realms his own and always
gained the victory. His men held that of his own nature he
would always be victorious. Before sending them to war, he
laid his hands on them and blessed them, and they believed
they would fare well thereby. In sore straits by sea or land they
called on him, and deemed that they gained help. In battle
their foes were made blind, deaf, or terror-stricken, and their
weapons rendered useless. His men went without birnies,
and were mad as dogs or wolves, bit on their shields, and were
strong as bears or bulls — a reminiscence of the berserkr-gangr ,
or ‘ berserker-rage.’ In Snorri’s Prologue to the Edda y Odin,
as a king, goes from land to land, occupying them and making
them his own. So Saxo calls Odin ‘ the mighty in battle,’ and
Mars £ the war-waging god,’ and he is said to have a white
shield and a great horse. 78 On a helmet found in a grave at
Vendel, in Sweden, of the Iron Age period, a warrior on horse-
back, armed, with helmet, shield, and spear, is believed to repre-
sent Odin, as two birds in flight, one on each side of the head,
are most probably his ravens.' 9

Odin’s names or titles bear witness to his functions as god of
war. He is Sigfadir, £ Father of victory ’j Sigtyr, £ god of vic-
tory.’ Oaths were sworn by £ Sigtyr’s mountain.’ His city was
Sigtun. Other names are Hertyr, £ god of hosts ’$ Heryan,
‘Leader of hosts ’$ Herfadir, ‘Father of hosts’; Valfadir,
‘ Father of the slain.’ He is Hnikarr, ‘ Spear-lord ’; Biflindi,
‘ Spear-brandisher ’; he is ‘the weapon-decked’ god. Hence
many kennings for battle connect it with Odin. It is his ‘ grim-
ness ’ or ‘ fury,’ ‘ the storm of Odin,’ ‘ the storm-wind of the


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


59

Valkyries’; the sword is ‘Odin’s fire.’ ‘Weapons and arms
should be periphrased in figures of battle and with reference to
Odin and the Valkyries,’ says Snorri in Skaldskaparmal. We

may also recall what Adam of Bremen said of Odin as god of
80

war.

While generally, though not invariably, Odin is more promi-
nent than Thor in the myths, this prominence is much less ob-
vious in historical documents. There must have been a time
when Odin was unknown in Scandinavia, or on a much lower
level than that which he ultimately attained. Odin as Wodan
was certainly prominent at an earlier time in Germany, espe-
cially in its southern region. The presumption, therefore, is
that the cult of Odin as a higher god, possibly with that of
others, passed first to Denmark and then to Sweden, where he
gained popularity. Perhaps he was first worshipped, or his
cult first came to prominence, in Gautland or Gotland, in South
Sweden, for he was called Gaut, Gautatyr, ‘ god of the Gauts,’
and also ‘ friend of the Gauts .’ 81 From Sweden his cult passed
to Norway, where, however, it never overthrew that of the
indigenous Thor. In the Sagas relating to the families of Ice-
land, the cult of Odin is never mentioned. It is only in those
which concern the legendary period that he is prominent.

This migration of cult may be indicated in the migration
legend, as told by Snorri, that Odin and others came from the
South-east to Denmark and Sweden, as well as in the fact that
Adam of Bremen still knows Odin at Upsala as Wodenus, a
Saxon form of the name, while Danish documents know him as
Wodhen. Significant, too, is his name Saxagod, ‘ god of the
Saxons .’ 82

The growing supremacy of Odin was one aspect of the growth
of a new culture in the Viking age and the rise of a splendid
courtly life through the power of the great kings. The art of
war was cultivated for itself: the art of poetry was fostered by
kings, and skalds became a definite class in this new and vigor-
ous stage of history. Odin was associated with both war and


6o


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


poetry. He became important and necessary to kings, nobles,
and court poets, and those aspects of his personality con-
nected with war and poetry were ever the more emphasized.
Odin’s seat was a royal court: he himself a supreme divine
ruler.

Yet even in the Eddie poems there are hints of the earlier
stages when Odin was not so prominent, just as they emphasize
lower aspects of his personality, as we have seen. We see Frey
seated on Odin’s Hlidskjalf, looking over the world, possessed
of a magic horse, sword, and the ring Draupnir, and called jolk-
valdi go da, 1 chief of the gods,’ in Skirnismal. Frigg and
Gefjun share foreknowledge with Odin in Lokasenna , and
Freyja shares the slain with him, according to Grimnismal.
Thor, who had been chief god in Norway, remained chief god of
the people, in contradistinction to the aristocracy, and he was
especially prominent in Iceland, where kingship did not exist
and few of the emigrants were of royal blood. This seems to be
hinted at in Harbardsljod where the nobles who fall in battle
are said to be Odin’s, but the peasants belong to Thor, the rough,
homely, peasant-like god. 83 Odin, as a god of knowledge, is
contrasted with Thor, the embodiment of physical force. Even
Odin’s spear, the warrior’s weapon, suggests a higher stage of
culture than Thor’s hammer. Odin drinks wine, which is meat
and drink to him: Thor drinks ale and is a mighty eater.
Snorri, it is true, speaks of the first toast drunk at festivals as
one consecrated to Odin, £ for victory and power to the king,’
but this cannot override the more general evidence regarding
Thor, nor the fact that the Islendinga Sogur never speak of
temples, images, or priests of Odin in Iceland.

Odin’s growing cult, on the whole, however, affected the
more popular cults of Thor and Frey, and in the later Scan-
dinavian literature he has achieved the highest position as head
of a pantheon. To him were assimilated many lesser and local
gods, whose individual functions corresponded to some of
Odin’s. Many of the names given to him must be the last



PLATE VIII
Swedish Grave-stone

Grave-stone from Tjangvide, Gotland, Sweden, c.
1000 a.d. The figure on the eight-legged horse may
be Odin on Sleipnir. See p. 65.




THE GREATER GODS — ODIN


6 1


traces of such local deities, just as the Ollerus and Mit-othin
stories, presently to be given, suggest that he had absorbed
the personality and cult of other gods.

£ Of all the gods Odin is the greatest,’ and, according to
Snorri, he is foremost and oldest of the gods, or, as in Volusia ,
ruler of the gods. £ He lives through all ages and rules all
realms, and directs all things, small and great.’ He is Alda-
fadir, £ father of men,’ £ because he is father of all the gods and
men,’ and, as in the Lombard story, he is depicted as sitting in
the high seat, Hlidskjalf, looking out over the world and seeing
every man’s deeds . 84 Grimnismal shows Odin and Frigg sit-
ting on this seat and viewing the whole world, and from it Odin
looked forth and saw where Loki had hidden himself. Hlid-
skjalf is in Valaskjalf, one of the heavenly abodes, made by
the gods and thatched with silver, and possibly the same as
Valhall . 85

The other gods or Aisir are Odin’s people. He is highest
and eldest of these ; he rules all things, and, mighty as are the
others, all serve him as children obey a father. With Vili and
Ve, or Hoenir and Loki, Odin is creator or fashioner of the
world, of the first man and woman, to whom he gave soul. But
Snorri, apart from the myths which tell of this, says that Odin
£ fashioned Heaven and earth and air, and all things in them: he
made man and gave him the immortal spirit .’ 86 As chief god
Odin grants to men their wishes, and he has knowledge of all
things, though this is not necessarily innate to him, but gained
in different ways. We see him displaying his cosmogonic knowl-
edge to Agnar in Grimnismal. Frigg had said that his fosterling,
king Geirrod, was miserly and tortured his guests if too many of
these came to him. Odin denied this and set off to prove it.
Meanwhile Frigg sent Fulla to Geirrod to tell him that he must
beware of a magician who is coming to him, and whom he will
know by the sign that the fiercest dog will not leap at him.
Odin, calling himself Grimnir, £ the hooded one,’ arrived, clad
in a dark blue mantle, and would not speak when questioned.


6 2


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Geirrod tortured him by setting him between two fires for eight
nights. Geirrod’s young son, Agnar, had pity on him and
brought him a horn of ale. Odin praised him and then went on
to tell of the different divine abodes, of Yggdrasil, of creation,
lastly reciting his various names and disclosing himself as Odin.
When Geirrod heard this he ran to take him from the fire, but
stumbled and fell on his sword. Odin now vanished. Agnar
ruled long as king.

In V aft hrudnismal Odin desires to match his knowledge with
that of the giant Vafthrudnir. Frigg would fain keep him at
home, because Vafthrudnir is such a mighty giant. Odin pro-
claims his intention of going to seek him, and now Frigg bids
him a safe journey and trusts that his wit will avail him. He
sets out and reaches the giant’s hall. Vafthrudnir says that he
will never go forth again unless he proves himself wiser than
the giant. Each questions the other, and the answers form a
stock of mythological knowledge. In the end Odin, who has
all through called himself Gagnrath and is unknown to the
giant, asks him what words Odin spoke in the ear of Balder on
his pyre. Now Vafthrudnir knows the god, and admits that he
is the wiser. As the two had wagered their heads on the result
of the contest, it is to be presumed that the giant, who speaks in
the last verse of his ‘ fated mouth,’ now loses his head, though
the poem does not say so.

In the N ornagests-thattr, having taken the form of Gestum-
blindi, 1 Gest the blind,’ Odin enters King Heidrik’s hall at
Yule, and propounds to him riddles, because the king is famous
at guessing these. One of the riddles is: ‘ Who are the two that
have ten feet, three eyes, and one tail? ’ The answer is: c The
one-eyed Odin, riding Sleipnir, his eight-legged steed.’ Heid-
rik answered all the riddles, save that one which baffled
Vafthrudnir: ‘ What did Odin speak into Balder’s ear before he
was burned on the pyre? ’ By this Heidrik recognized Odin,
and threw his magic sword Tyrfing at him, but he escaped as a
falcon. Odin, however, was angry at Heidrik, and that night


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 63

he was slain by his slaves, or, according to a Faroese ballad-
version of this story, Odin burned him in his hall. 8 '

This high position ascribed to Odin, chiefly by the skalds and
in Snorri’s Edda y is a later development of the personality and
functions of the god, though traces of it are found elsewhere, as
in the Lombard saga. Possibly some Christian influences may
have affected the description of Odin’s might, as when he is
called c All-father.’

We turn now to Odin’s descent and relationships. Snorri
says that the mythic cow Audhumla gave origin out of an ice-
block to Buri, fair of feature, mighty and great. His son was
Borr, who married Bestla, daughter of the giant Bolthorn. To
them were born Odin, Vili, and Ve. How Buri procreated Borr
is not told. Giants are thus already in existence. Some of these
personages are referred to in the poems: Borr’s sons in Voluspa;
‘ Borr’s heir ’ (Odin) in Hyndluljod; Bestla’s brother, son of
Bolthorn, who taught Odin songs, in Havamald 8

Odin’s wife is Frigg, and in Lokasenna Loki reminds her of
her amours with Vili and Ve — the only passage in the Poetic
Edda where these two are mentioned. This incident is spoken
of in the Y nglinga-saga. Odin’s brothers ruled the realm in
his absence. Once, when he was away, the dEsir thought that
he would never return. So Vili and Ve shared his goods and
his consort Frigg. Soon after Odin returned and took his wife
once more. 89 Whether Vili and Ve are shadowy reflections of
Odin or actual deities alternating in cult with him — a view
favoured by recent research — is not clear.

Two stories, relics of older myths, are given by Saxo. Frigg
had offended Odin, and he went into exile. Now Mit-othin,
famous for jugglery, seized the opportunity of feigning to be a
god and led the people to worship him. He said that the wrath
of the gods could never be expiated by mixed sacrifices, and he
appointed to each of the gods his special drink-offering. After
a time Odin returned, and Mit-othin fled to Finland, where
the inhabitants slew him. All who approached his barrow died


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


64

and pestilence spread from his body, until it was taken out,
beheaded and impaled in vampire fashion. Meanwhile the
death of Odin’s wife revived the splendours of his name,
and he forced all those who had misused his absence by usurp-
ing divine honours to renounce them, and scattered the
sorcerers . 90

The other story is that after Odin’s amour with Rinda, the
gods banished him and stripped him of honour, lest the wor-
shippers should forsake them. Ollerus was put in his place and
was called Odin. For ten years he was president of the divine
court, until the gods pitied Odin’s exile and recalled him. Some
judged that he was still unworthy: others said that he had
bribed the gods. ‘ If you ask how much he paid, enquire of
those who have found out what is the price of a godhead,’ is
Saxo’s comment. Ollerus was driven out, and retired to Sweden
where the Danes slew him. He was said to be a wizard, who
used a bone marked with spells to cross the sea. By it he passed
over the waters as quickly as by rowing . 91

Ollerus is the Ull of the Eddas. Mit-othin, or Mjotudr-inn,
is connected with ON mjotudr , AS meotod , ‘ fate ’ or £ the
power which metes out,’ and may mean ‘judge.’ Others ex-
plain the name as ‘ co-Odin ’ or 1 contra-Odin,’ and as the latter
he is regarded as Loki, for, like Loki, he is celiber praestigiis.
The two stories may be variants of one myth, referring to the
introduction of the new cult of Odin in certain regions of the
North where another god had been supreme. There are
reminiscences of a cult war. The rule of the earlier god, in the
eyes of the upholders of the new cult, could only have been pos-
sible by cunning and fraud. The theory of a prehistoric cult of
alternating twin gods, who share a consort, succeeding each
other in her possession, has also been suggested here. Such
twin gods are held to be found in the two brother-gods called
Aids, mentioned by Tacitus as worshipped in a grove of the
Nahanarvali, an East German tribe, and served by a priest
in woman’s clothing . 92 Possibly the myths point to Odin as a


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 65

god whose power waned in winter, when another god took his
place, and also his consort.

By Frigg Odin had a son, Balder. Thor is said to be his
son by Jord, £ Earth Vali was his son by the giantess Rind.
Hod, Bragi, Vidarr, and Heimdall are also called sons of
Odin. 93 Kings and chiefs traced descent from Odin, e.g., the
Skjol dings from his son Skjold. 94

Certain possessions are ascribed to Odin. His ravens Hu-
ginn, £ Thought,’ and Muninn, £ Memory,’ sit on his shoulders
and whisper to him all they see or hear. He sends them forth
at day-break to fly about the world, and they return at evening
with their budget of news. Hence Odin is Hrafna-god,
£ Raven-god.’ These birds are also called his hawks. £ For
Huginn I fear lest he return not home, but I am more anxious
for Muninn,’ says Odin in Grimnismal , as if he feared they
might not return from their flight. 95 The ravens which haunt
battle-fields were naturally connected with Odin as War-god,
but there is also a suggestion in this raven myth of his superior
knowledge, inasmuch as he understands the language of birds.
The presence of two ravens flying past when Earl Hakon of-
fered a great sacrifice was a sign to him that Odin had taken his
offering and that he would have a happy day of fighting.
Ravens are mentioned as Odin’s birds in the Havardar-saga:
1 There is a flight of ravens, Odin’s messengers, on the left
hand.’ Thus all ravens are the birds of Odin. 96

Odin has two wolves, Geri, £ the Ravener,’ and Freki, £ the
Glutton,’ to whom he gives his food, for wine is to him meat and
drink. They are called his hounds. 97 Wolves, like ravens,
visiting battle-fields and eating the slain, were appropriate to a
War-god and a god of the dead.

Sleipnir is Odin’s horse, born of Loki, grey, eight-legged, per-
haps a symbol of speed. It is the £ best of all horses ’ among
gods and men. On it Odin rides over land and sea, into Jotun-
heim and down to Hel, as did Hermod when he went to seek
Balder’s deliverance. On one occasion, Odin rode Sleipnir into


66


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


J otunheim and visited the giant Hrungnir, ‘ Blusterer.’ Hrung-
nir asked who this might be, riding through air and water on
such a good steed. Odin wagered his head that there was no
such steed in Jotunheim. Hrungnir said that his horse, Gull-
faxi , 1 Golden-mane,’ was better, and, growing angry, leaped on
it and rode after Odin, who went so furiously that he was on
the top of the next hill first. Hrungnir, overcome with giants’
frenzy, rode after him into Asgard where, in the sequel, he was
dealt with by Thor . 98

The spear Gungnir was made by dwarfs and given to
Odin by Loki. He lent it to heroes. Against it all other
weapons were useless, e.g., Sigmund’s sword. On Gungnir’s
point and Sleipnir’s teeth, the head of Mimir bade runes to be
written . 99

Odin’s ring, Draupnir , 1 Dropper,’ made by the dwarf Sindri
and given by his brother to Odin, was so called because eight
rings of the same weight dropped from it every ninth night.
Odin laid it on Balder’s pyre, and Balder sent it back to him
from Hel as a token of remembrance. In Skirnismal the ring is
Frey’s and is offered by Skirnir to Gerd as a means of inducing
her to accept Frey’s love. Balder is also called c possessor of
Draupnir .’ 100 If, as is thought, this ring is a symbol of fruitful-
ness, it would naturally belong to Frey, the god of fruitfulness,
afterwards passing into Odin’s possession.

[Prometheus]

Odin was still remembered in Christian times, and appears in
different stories, as well as in folk-belief. Out of several tales
in which he appears before Christian kings may be cited that of
his coming to king Olaf Tryggvason, as he was keeping Easter.
He appeared as an old man, one-eyed, of sombre aspect, wearing
a broad-brimmed hat, and wise of speech. Olaf was entranced
with his conversation, for he told him of all lands and all times.
Hardly would the king go to bed, even when his bishop re-
minded him of the lateness of the hour. When he was in bed,
the stranger came and held further converse with him, until
the bishop told Olaf that he must sleep. When he awoke, the


THE GREATER GODS — ODIN 67

guest was gone, but not before telling the cook that the meat
which he was preparing was bad, and giving him two sides of an
ox in its stead. Hearing this, the king ordered the meat to be
burned and thrown into the sea, for the stranger could have
been no other than Odin in whom the heathen had believed. 101


CHAPTER V


THE GREATER GODS— THOR

T HE name of the god Thor (ON E»orr) of the Eddas oc-
curs elsewhere in the following forms — OHG Donar,
OS Thunaer, AS Thunor, and, in the speech of the Normans,
Thur. These are from an earlier Thunaraz, and the root is
connected with Indo-Germanic (s)ten, £ to boom,’ £ to roard
Donar-Thor is thus the Loud-sounder, the Thunderer, the
Thunder-god — the earliest aspect of this deity.

His widespread cult is attested by the equally widespread
name of the fifth day of the week over the Teutonic area —
OHG Donarestag or Toniristag; AS Thunoresdaeg; OE
Thunresdaeg, hence Thursday; Swedish Thorsday, Danish
Torsdag. The names were equivalents of the Roman Dies
Jovis, and this suggests that Donar was regarded as the Teutonic
Jupiter. In the early part of the eighth century S. Boniface
found the Hessians at Geismar revering a huge sacred oak,
robur Jovis , which he began to cut down, when the wind com-
pleted his efforts. 1 Boniface denounced the cult of such demons
as Jupiter and spoke of Christian priests who sacrificed to Jupi-
ter, feasting on the sacrifice. 2 Jupiter is undoubtedly Thor.
The Indiculus Suferstitionum (eighth century) speaks of the
Saxon sacra Jovis and jeriae Jovis , and Thunaer was one of the
gods whom Saxons renounced at baptism. 3 The eighth century
Homilia de Sacrilegiis , probably written by a priest of the
northern part of the Frankish kingdom, says that no work was
done on the day of Jupiter, and earlier notices of this ritual
idleness occur in Csesarius of Arles (fifth century) and Eligius
of Troyes (588 to 659 a.d.), both referring to customs of the
Germanic inhabitants of these regions. 4 The German Peni-






PLATE IX


Representations of Thor

The uppermost design, from the smaller golden
horn, of a three-headed deity is held by some to repre-
sent Thor with an axe and one of his goats.

The central design, of a god with an axe and a
monster at his right hand, is supposed to represent
Thor. From the decoration of a helmet found at
Vendel in Sweden.

The two lowest designs are embossed bronze plates
from the island of Oland, Sweden, representing Thor
and a monster, and a god (Thor?) between two
monsters.








THE GREATER GODS — THOR


6 9

tential bearing the names £ Corrector ’ and £ Medicus ’ which
forms the nineteenth Book of the collection of decrees made by
Burchard of Worms, c. 1000 a . d ., and which was itself com-
piled in the early tenth century, also speaks of the observance
of the fifth day in honour of Jupiter. 5

Saxo had difficulty in accepting the equivalence of Thor as
Jupiter and Odin as Mercury, for this would make Jupiter son
of Mercury, since Thor was Odin’s son. He concludes that, if
Jupiter was father of Mercury, Thor could not be Jupiter nor
Odin Mercury. 6

The identification of Thor with Jupiter was apparently sub-
sequent to his equivalence with Hercules as the interfretatio
Romana. Tacitus places Hercules next to Mercury among the
German tribes, and Hercules with his club is plainly the
same as Thor with his hammer. Both were strong, both fought
against evil powers. Hercules also occurs in inscriptions in
Batavian territory — Hercules Magusanus, and in the lower
Rhine region, where dedications to a Germanic Hercules occur.
Magusanus, £ the strong,’ from an old German magan , £ to be
strong,’ is connected with the name of Thor’s son Magni, and
corresponds to a Norse epithet of Thor’s, hin rammi , £ the
strong.’ A Hercules Deusoniensis, named on coins, is presumed
to be a native German god, the name appearing in such place-
names as Duisberg. Hercules Barbatus on Rhenish inscriptions
is also Donar, whose beard is often mentioned in Norse liter-
ature. Hercules Malliator, in an inscription at Obernburg,
refers to Donar with his hammer.

Tacitus speaks of the Germanic Hercules and Mars being
placated with the permissible animal victims. £ They tell how
Hercules appeared among them, and on the eve of battle they
hymn the first of all brave men.’ Arminius convened the tribes
in a wood sacred to Hercules — a cult-centre of the Cherusci
and other tribes, east of the Weser. 7

Donar-Thor, the Thunder-god, thus corresponds to Jupiter,
in whose hands are thunder and lightning 5 and, as the strongest


70


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


of the gods with his hammer, to Hercules, the strong hero with
his club. If the Teutons known to the Romans told myths about
Donar conquering giants and monsters, like the Norse Thor,
the equivalence with Hercules is intelligible.

Apart from the occurrence of Donar’s name in that of the
fifth day of the week, we find it on the Nordendorf brooch, dis-
covered in Alemannic territory and belonging to the seventh
century, joined with that of Odin in a runic inscription. The
meaning of this seems to be that Thonar and Wodan are asked
to consecrate a marriage. Donar the mighty is named in a
twelfth century manuscript in a charm against epilepsy . 8 The
witness of mountain names in Germany is significant — Don-
nersberg (Thoneresberg), Thuneresberg, and others, like the
Thorsbiorg in Norway . 9 Among the Anglo-Saxons the name
Thunor does not occur in the royal genealogies as does that of
Woden, but its frequent appearance in English place-names
points to his cult . 10

Saxo speaks of Thor among the Danes as a god £ to the great-
ness of whose force nothing human or divine could fitly be com-
pared.’ He, Odin, and many others, £ being once men skilled
in magic, claimed the rank of gods, and ensnared the people of
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark .’ 11 For Thor’s cult and popu-
larity in Sweden we have the witness of Adam of Bremen who
equates Thor with the sceptre with Jupiter, and describes him
as £ most powerful of the gods ’ there. He is £ ruler of the air,
controls lightning and thunder, winds, rain-storms, fine weather
and crops.’ Saxo also speaks of him as £ the great Thor ’ of
Sweden . 12 Above all, Norway was the region where the cult of
Thor was most popular and long existent.

In Norway and in Iceland after its colonization, and to some
extent in Sweden, Thor appears as the chief god, whose sov-
ereignty Odin had taken. His cult was popular} his images
are often mentioned. Where his image stood beside those of
other deities, it had the most prominent place or was most richly
decked. At Throndhjem, in the chief temple, Thor sat in the


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


7i


midst as the most honourable, his image large and decked with
gold and silver. He sat in his wagon, very magnificent, drawn
by two goats carved in wood, with horns covered with silver.
The whole was mounted on wheels . 13 His image with his
hammer was carved on the pillars of high-seats belonging to
heads of families, or on the backs of chairs, or on the sterns of
ships . 14 Carved in bone, it was used as a protective amulet.
Men carried his images with them, made of silver or ivory.
Many temples of Thor existed in Norway and Iceland, and are
mentioned in the Sagas and other writings. No other god had
so many temples there as Thor.

Thor’s name was common in personal- and place- names in
Scandinavia — 1 Thordis, Thorkell, Thorgerd, Thorstein, and
innumerable others, and the proportion is large compared with
those of other deities, Odin’s name occurring seldom in Norse
names. Among the Icelandic colonists of the ninth and tenth
centuries names compounded of Thor are fifty-one as compared
with three of Fre^ and none of Odin. On monuments with
runes Thor is besought to consecrate these, and they sometimes
have the form of his hammer . 15 The Thing or assembly was
opened on Thor’s day, in a place consecrated to Thor, showing
that he was associated with law and justice. His superiority is
seen in epithets bestowed upon him — dsabragr y 1 first of the
AEsir’; landds , c god of the country’; hofdingi allra go da ,
1 chief of all gods ’j mest tignadhr , 1 most honoured.’ He is
1 Midgard’s warder ’; c the mighty one of the gods.’ At law-
business oaths were taken with the words: ‘ so help me Frey and
Nj ord and the almighty god,’ viz., Thor . 16 It is significant that
Odin’s name does not occur in this formula.

The reasons for Odin’s later supremacy have already been
discussed. Thor’s supremacy, however, was never forgotten,
and to the end he remained chief god to the peasants and yeo-
men. The Icelandic colonists believed that they were under his
protection and guided by him to their new abodes, which they
called after him. The images of Thor and Frey are often


72


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


mentioned in Iceland: Odin’s but once. Apart from the king’s
sacrifice to Odin, sacrifices were made only to Thor and Frey.
Thor consecrates runes, not Odin; and the Thing met on his
day, not Odin’s. The lines already cited from Harbardsljod
show that the warrior aristocracy went to Odin at death, the
folk to Thor, and the statement is significant of the relative
position of the two gods at the time when the poem was com-
posed (tenth century). The poem might be viewed as an at-
tempt of its author to emphasize Odin’s greatness at the expense
of Thor’s. While this is possible, yet the poem illustrates the
lower aspects of Odin, his amours and magic, and it might
equally be regarded as the comment of a mocking half-believer
upon the gods. The poem is a contest of wits between Thor
and Odin, disguised as a ferryman, Harbard. Thor appears as
a peasant, with a basket on his back, coming back from a journey
to the East. He asks Harbard to bring his boat over, but
Harbard enquires what sort of peasant is this and twits him with
his lowly position, not even possessing the usual peasant’s farm,
barefoot, and in a peasant’s dress. What is his name? c I am
Odin’s son, the strong one of the gods,’ Thor replies, and
threatens Harbard for his mockery. The two then relate their
adventures: each bidding the other tell what he was doing at
the time. Thor’s adventures are the slaying of the giants
Hrungnir and Thjazi, and of evil giant- women; his compelling
the sons of Svarang to sue for peace; his slaying the evil brides
of the berserkers. Odin recounts his love-affairs and his causing
of wars, and taunts Thor with cowardice, betraying troth, slay-
ing women, and with Sif’s infidelity. Thor reproaches Har-
bard with repaying good gifts with evil mind, calls him
£ womanish,’ utters foul speech against him, and threatens him
with death if he could cross the water to him. Harbard still
refuses to ferry him over, and adds that he never thought that
Asa-Thor, Thor of the yEisir, would be hindered by a ferryman.
Finally he bids him take his way on foot and directs him how to
go. Thor says that Harbard is speaking in mockery and then


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


73

the latter tells him to go hence where every evil thing will
harm him.

Odin’s contempt for Thor in this poem mirrors the relation
of the higher classes with their cult of Odin to the people outside
the courtly and aristocratic circles to whom Thor was still the
chief god.

Thor’s supremacy is attested in Lokasenna , for he alone of
the gods can silence Loki. He saves the gods from the ven-
geance of giants according to other myths, or, as the poet
Thorbjorn sings: c Bravely fought Thor for Asgard and the
followers of Odin.’ 17

The opposition between Thor and Odin appears in an episode
of the life of the ideal Danish and Norse hero, Starkad. He
had been nourished by Odin, called Hrosshars-grani, c Horse-
hair-beard.’ Becoming one of king Vikar’s companions, he was
with him when his fleet was stayed by a storm, and when the lots
showed that Vikar himself must be sacrificed to Odin. That
night Odin called Starkad and took him to a wood where, in a
clearing, eleven men were sitting on as many seats. The twelfth
seat was empty. Odin sat on it and was hailed by the others as
Odin. The occasion had now come for Starkad’s fate to be pro-
nounced. Thor said that as his mother had chosen a giant for
his father instead of Thor, Starkad would have neither son nor
daughter. Odin then said that he would live for three genera-
tions. In each, Thor said, he would do a dastard’s deed. Odin
announced that he would have the best of weapons and armour.
Thor replied that he would have neither lands nor heritage.
Odin promised him many possessions. Thor asserted that still
he would always long for more. Odin promised him victory in
every fight. Thor said that he would always receive terrible
wounds. Odin announced that he would give him such a gift
of poetry that verse would flow from his lips like common
speech. Thor said that he would forget all his poems. Odin
declared that the bravest and noblest would honour him;
Thor said that the common people would hate him. These


74


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


different fates were endorsed by the others. Odin finally
said that Starkad must repay him by slaying Vikar, and
gave him instructions how to effect this, as has already been
told . 18

[Prometheus]

Thor appears in this story as opponent of the aristocratic
warrior class dear to Odin, and of their ideals, turning every
gift of Odin’s into a curse or neutralizing it, and thus acting the
part of the third Norn in some tales.

In the Eddas Thor is regarded as son of Odin, but this could
only have been a mythic convention resulting from Odin’s
growing supremacy and the desire to bring all other deities into
relation with him. This mythic relationship is asserted in the
old English homily written by Ailfric, who says that the Danes
held Jupiter, whom they call Thor, to be son of Mercury, called
by them Odin. This he regards as erroneous according to
Roman mythology. Saxo, as has been seen, was also puzzled
by the equation.

Thor’s mother is Jord, ‘ Earth.’ His wife is Sif, ‘ the fair-
haired goddess,’ with hair like gold, who was accused by Loki
and by Odin of unfaithfulness to him. Thor himself was not
faithful to her. Their daughter is Thrud, ‘ might,’ promised
by the gods to Alviss in Thor’s absence. Thor is sometimes
described as ‘ Thrud’s father’: hence she may be regarded as
a personification of his might. He himself is Thrudugr, ‘ the
Mighty,’ and Thrudvald, ‘strong Protector his hammer is
Thrudhamarr, ‘mighty Hammer ’j his dwelling Thrudheim
and Thrudvang, ‘ Strength-home,’ ‘ Strong field.’ The giant
Hrungnir is called ‘ thief of Thrud ’ in allusion to some unre-
corded abduction of her . 19

Thor’s sons are Magni (his mother Jarnsaxa) and Modi,
who survive the Doom of the gods and inherit his hammer.
They are personifications of his might (Magni) and wrath
(Modi). When Magni was three days old he lifted the giant
Hrungnir’s foot off Thor, a feat which none of the ^Esir could
do . 20 Thor’s brother is Meili, of whom nothing is known. His


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


75

servants are Thjalfi and Roskva, children of a husbandman,
according to a story presently to be told . 21 His relationship to
Jord is seen in the epithet given to him, burr Jarthar , ‘son of
Earth,’ in Eokasenna and T hrymskvitha . 22

Thor’s names and epithets throw light on his character and
functions. He is thrudvaldr goda , ‘ the strong one of the
gods ’j veorr Mid gar ds, ‘Warder of earth ’j vinr verlidha ,
c the Friend of man ’j Vingnir, ‘ the Hurler ’ j Vingthor, ‘ Thor
the Hurler ’j Hlorrithi, ‘ the Noisy one ’; orms ein-bani, ‘ Ser-
pent’s destroyer ’; Thurs radbani , ‘ Giant-killer.’ These show
him as the champion of the gods, the Thunder-god, the de-
stroyer of obnoxious powers and beings, the helper of men.
Though in origin a Thunder-god, he has other aspects, mostly
of a beneficent kind, as summed up in Adam of Bremen’s ac-
count, cited above. As Thunder-god his functions show that
the thunder-storm was regarded in a beneficent aspect as fur-
thering fertility. Sacrifices were made and prayers offered to
Thor by the Swedes and Norsemen in times of famine and sick-
ness, as Adam of Bremen and a passage in the Eiriks-saga show.
Thorkill prayed to Thor, the red-bearded god, for food, and
he sent a whale to the shore . 23 Thor helped to make the
ground arable, and protected men against rocks and cliffs . 24
To sea-farers he was helpful, giving them favourable winds.
The Norman Vikings offered him human victims before setting
sail, and animal and food offerings were made to him by voy-
agers to Iceland . 25 Helgi the Thin asked him where he should
land in Iceland, and he was advised to go to Eyjafjord. Helgi
was a Christian, but was still so inclined to the old faith that he
sought Thor’s help in all sea-faring and difficult journeys . 26
Kraoko Hreidarr and his party sailed to Iceland, and he made
vows to Thor in order that he should point out a site for his
possession. Though the land to which he was directed be-
longed to another, Kraoko maintained that Thor had sent him
to it and intended him to settle there . 27 Settlers in Iceland
dedicated their land to Thor and called it by his name . 28 Hence


7 6 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY

the great number of place-names which bear witness to the cult
of Thor.

Several accounts in the Sagas show how prominent this cult
was in the lives of the Norse settlers in Iceland. Rolf, who was
called Thorolf, had been guardian of Thor’s temple on the
island of Most near the Norwegian coast. He was called £ a
great friend ’ of Thor’s, and, when he quarrelled with king
Harald, he made a great sacrifice and enquired of 1 his beloved
friend ’ Thor whether he should make peace with the king or
leave Norway. The answer was that he should go to Iceland.
He now took the temple to pieces and removed the timbers and
earth from the spot where Thor’s image had rested. On draw-
ing near Iceland, he threw overboard the pillars carved with
Thor’s image, believing that by them he would be guided to a
landing-place. They drifted ashore at a place afterwards called
Thorsness, and there Thorolf landed and built a temple. 29
Other examples of this use of pillars are given in the Land-
ndma-boky as well as of taking down a temple before migrat-
ing. 30 The Kjalnesinga-saga tells of a great sacrificer called
Thorgrim, grandson of Ingolf, the first settler in Iceland. He
had a large temple to which all his men had to pay toll. He
held Thor in highest honour, and in the temple his image was
in the centre, with those of other deities on either hand. 31 The
dedication of sons to the service of Thor is also spoken of in
the Sagas. Thorolf, himself dedicated to Thor, gave his son
Stein to the god as Thorstein. His son in turn, Grim called
Thorgrim, was also dedicated to Thor in order that he should
be a temple-priest. The naming of lands or places or persons
after Thor is prominent in stories of the settlement of Iceland.

Thor’s power over the winds and storms is also seen in the
fact that he caused shipwreck to those who forsook their alle-
giance to him by turning to Christianity. In the Njals-saga
Thangbrand, a Christian, was asked by Steinvora, mother of
Ref the skald, if he had heard that Thor challenged Christ to
single combat and that He dared not accept the challenge. He









'











PLATE X

Thor and the Midgard-serpent

The upper design shows a sculptured capital from
the church of Bocherville, Normandy, eleventh cen-
tury, and is supposed to represent Thor attacking the
Midgard-serpent.

The lower illustration of a sculpture of Scandinavian
origin in the churchyard of Gosforth, Cumberland,
shows Thor fishing with the giant Hymir (p. 85).







THE GREATER GODS — THOR


77

replied that he had heard that Thor was but dust and ashes,
if God had not willed that he should live. Then she asked him
if he knew how he had been shipwrecked, and told him that
Thor had done this. ‘ Little good was Christ when Thor shat-
tered ships to pieces. ... A storm roused by Thor dashed the
bark to splinters small .’ 32 An Icelander named Thorgisl be-
came a Christian, and in dreams was threatened by Thor if he
did not return to his allegiance. The ship on which he was sail-
ing encountered a great storm, caused by Thor. The god asked
him in one dream to pay him what he had vowed to him. On
awaking he recalled that this was a calf which was now an old
ox. He threw it overboard, as this was the reason that Thor
was haunting the ship . 33

Thor’s aid was also sought in war. Styrbjorn prayed to him
for victory over king Eirik, who prayed to Odin, and because
he was mightier than Thor, Eirik was victorious . 34

At banquets a cup of wine, consecrated by the sign of Thor’s
hammer, was drunk to him. At a certain banquet Earl Sigund
signed the first cup to Odin. King Hakon, a Christian, took it
and signed it with the Cross, whereupon Sigund said that he was
signing it to Thor with the hammer sign . 30

Before discussing Thor’s possessions a passage from Snorri’s
Edda describing him may be quoted. ‘ He is strongest of gods
and men. His realm is in Thrudvang; his hall is Bilskirnir, and
in it are five hundred and forty rooms. That is the greatest
house known to men.’ Here Snorri quotes a verse of Grimnis-
mal in which Odin describes his son’s hall and says that it is the
greatest of all houses, i.e., greater even than his own Valhall.
The stanza is an interpolation, but it may be a reminiscence of
Thor’s supreme place among the gods, and it is significant also
that, in describing the various seats of the gods, Odin begins,
not with his own, but with Thor’s. Snorri then speaks of Thor’s
chariot and goats, and his three precious possessions — ham-
mer, girdle, and iron gloves . 36

Thor has two he-goats called Tanngnjost, ‘ Tooth -gnasher,’


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


78

and Tanngrisnir, £ Tooth-gritter,’ and a chariot in which he
drives, drawn by them. Hence he is called Oku-Thor,
‘ Wagon-Thor.’ Snorri also quotes the poet Kormak who said:
£ In his wagon Thor sitteth.’ The wagon is £ the car of Hrung-
nir’s slayer,’ on which runes were bidden to be written by
Mimir . 37 In thunder-storms a god or supernatural being is
often supposed to be on a journey through the sky, and this
was true of Thor. A thunder-clap was reidar thruma , the rum-
bling noise of chariot wheels. In Sweden the people said dur-
ing thunder: godgubben dker; go far dker , £ the good old fel-
low ’ or £ the gaffer drives.’ In Gothland thunder is Thors
akan , ‘ Thor’s driving,’ and in Schleswig-Holstein the noise of
thunder is attributed to the rumbling of a wagon through the
air, i.e., Thor’s wagon. Hence his name Oku-Thor or such
epithets as Valdi Kjola, £ ruler of the wagon,’ Reidartyr, £ god
of the wagon,’ Vagna verr, £ wagon-man .’ 38 From the goats
which drew the wagon Thor was called Hafra drottin, £ lord of
the goats .’ 39 One of the myths of Thor told by Snorri begins:
f Oku-Thor drove out with his he-goats and his chariot,’ and in
the Haustlong of Thjodolf of Hvin we see the goats driving the
god in his wagon to fight with giants. Hail beats down, earth
is rent, rocks shake, crags are shivered, the sky burns, as he rolls
along — the description of a thunder-storm. T hrymskvitha
describes how the mountains were rent and earth burned with
fire, as the goats drove Thor’s wagon to Jotunheim . 40

Besides going in his wagon Thor is depicted walking, while
other gods ride. Thus he walks to the daily Thing or perhaps
to the final catastrophe, wading through many rivers according
to an obscure passage in Grimnismal. iX

1 The hammer Mjollnir which is known to the Frost-giants
and Hill-giants, when it is raised aloft ; and little wonder, for it
has smashed many a skull of their fathers or kinsfolk.’ This
£ mighty ’ or £ murder-greedy ’ hammer was made by the dwarf
Sindri and was deemed by the gods to be best of all precious
works. It could be wielded by Thor only when he wore his


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


79

iron gloves. However hard he smote, it would not fail him:
if he threw it, it would never miss nor fly so far as not to return
to his hands. If he desired, it could become so small that he
could keep it under his shirt. The only flaw in it was the short-
ness of its haft . 42 With his hammer Thor slew monsters and
giants, and forced Loki to keep silence by threatening him with
it. Thunder and lightning sometimes preceded its stroke . 43
Hence it is most easily explained as the thunderbolt, which, in
German superstition, was an essential part of the lightning-flash,
and believed to be a black wedge which buried itself in the
earth, but at each succeeding thunder-storm rose towards the
surface, which it reached in seven years . 44 Does this belief cor-
respond to the statement that Thor’s hammer returned to his
hand after being thrown? The superstition is echoed in
T hrymskvitha in which the giant Thrym steals the hammer and
buries it eight miles deep in the earth. In many regions flint
weapons found in the earth are believed to be thunderbolts,
and the myth of Thor’s hammer is doubtless connected with this
belief. They are generally used as amulets or for magical
purposes.

The hammer was a sacred symbol, and the sign of the ham-
mer was used in consecrations and blessings. This custom is
reflected in certain passages of the Eddas. The giant Thrym,
believing the disguised Thor to be Freyja, the bride demanded
by him, said:

1 Bring now the hammer, to bless the bride,

Lay Mjollnir in the maiden’s bosom,

That our bond may be consecrated in Vor’s name.’ 45

Thor himself hallowed the hides and bones of his dead goats
with his hammer, so that they lived again. With it he also hal-
lowed Balder’s pyre. The sign of the hammer, as in Christian
circles the sign of the Cross, was made over cups of liquor, espe-
cially in sacrifices. As a divine symbol the hammer was used
for many purposes. Sickness was healed by it, demons kept


8o


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


at a distance, marriages consecrated. According to Norse cus-
tom, when a newly born child had been accepted by its father
and so permitted to live, it was washed and signed with Thor’s
hammer, i.e., a symbol of that mythic weapon, and thus received
into the family. 48 The hammer carved on a tombstone showed
that the dead man was dedicated to Thor. Small hammers
were used as amulets, and specimens of these have been found
in Denmark and Sweden. £ Thor’s hammers ’ were used by the
island-men in their ancient faith, according to Saxo, who calls
them malleos joviales. The men of old thought that thunder
was caused by such hammers, and they apparently used them in
thunder-storms. In c. 1123 a.d. Magnus Nicholasson the
Dane spoiled Thor’s temple in Sweden of these tokens of the
god’s, and the Swedes considered him guilty of sacrilege. 47 All
this points to the connexion of Thor’s hammer both with the
mythic powers attributed to weapons and with the superstitious
use of stone weapons regarded as supernatural. Thor’s ham-
mer became the possession of Magni and Modi, his sons, in the
renewed world. 48

When Thor clasps his girdle around him c his divine strength
is increased by half.’ In his iron gloves, his third precious
possession, there is also much virtue. 49

Thor is red-bearded, though whether this redness alludes to
the fiery appearance of lightning, as Grimm supposed, is doubt-
ful. He shakes his beard when roused} when he speaks into it,
every one quails. His anger is described by his bristling hair
and tossing beard, or he lets his brows sink down below his eyes,
so that whoso looks at him must fall down before his glance
alone. Flame flashes from his eyes. When Thor met king
Olaf at a time when Christianity was encroaching on his cult,
c he blew hard into his beard, and raised his beard’s voice,’ with
the result that a storm arose. 50 He is seen travelling on foot
like a peasant, carrying a basket on his back — an appropriate
appearance for a god of the peasants and the folk. He visits
a peasant’s house for a night’s lodging, and from such a house


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


he took his servants Thjalfi and Roskva. Thjalfi, the swift-
runner, is so swift that only Hugi or thought can beat him.
Hence he may be a personification of lightning. Peasant-like,
too, is Thor in his wordy flyting with Odin in Harbardsljod . S1

At the Doom of the gods Thor fights with the Midgard-
serpent, which he slays, but falls dead through its venom. 62

Thor is often described as journeying to the East to fight
giants or trolls. The Eddas contain several myths of these ex-
peditions and combats. Indeed no other Eddie god has so many
myths told of him as Thor. Several of his titles refer to his
power over giants and monsters: c adversary and slayer of giants
and troll-women,’ c smiter of Hrungnir, of Geirrod, of Thri-
valdi,’ ( foe of the Midgard-serpent,’ £ hewer in sunder of the
nine heads of Thrivaldi,’ c merciless destroyer of giantesses.’
Hence also he is 1 the defender of Asgard and of Midgard.’ 53
In his aspect as queller of giants, Thor, the Thunder-god, repre-
sents the folk-belief that thunder is obnoxious to giants, trolls,
and other demoniac beings. 54

The myths in which Thor plays a part will now be given,
beginning with that of the giant Hrungnir. After Odin’s visit
to Hrungnir (p. 66), the giant pursued him into Asgard. The
Tisir gave Hrungnir drink out of Thor’s flagons, and when
drunk, the giant boasted that he would carry Valhall into
Jotunheim and kill all the deities, save Sif and Freyja. Freyja
alone dared pour ale for him, and now, as his insolence increased,
the gods called for Thor. Thor, swinging his hammer, asked
why Hrungnir was drinking here and who had given him safe-
conduct, and, hearing from him that it was Odin, Thor said
that he would repent of his presence there. Hrungnir protested
that Thor would have no fame for killing a defenceless giant,
and offered to fight him on the borders of Grjotunagard. He
then rode back to Jotunheim, and news of the duel was spread
among the giants, who feared for themselves lest Thor should
win. They made a giant of clay, nine miles high and three
broad, and gave him a mare’s heart. Hrungnir had a stone


82


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


heart with three corners ; of stone also were his head and shield.
His weapon was a whetstone. Beside him stood the clay giant,
Mokkurkalfi, in great terror.

Thor and Thjalfi went to the meeting, and Thjalfi ran for-
ward and advised the giant to stand on his shield for Thor
would come up through the earth to him. This he did. Now
arose thunder and lightnings, and Thor in divine fury ( dsmodi ),
swung his hammer and cast it at Hrungnir, who meanwhile
threw his whetstone. The weapons crashed together, and part
of the whetstone fell to earth, forming all the whinstone rocks,
part of it burst on Thor’s head, so that he fell forward. The
hammer, however, broke Hrungnir’s head in pieces, and he fell
with his foot on Thor’s neck. Thjalfi struck the clay giant
down. He tried to raise Hrungnir’s foot from Thor’s neck,
but could not, neither could any of the Aisir when they arrived.
None could succeed but Magni, Thor’s three days’ old son by
the giantess Jarnsaxa. £ Sad it is,’ he said , 1 father, that I came
so late, for I would have slain this giant with my fist, had I come
sooner.’ Thor praised him and gave him Hrungnir’s horse,
which Odin said should have been given to him.

The whetstone fragment remained in Thor’s head. The wise
woman Groa, wife of Aurvandil the Valiant, sang spells over
Thor until the stone was loosened. Thor told her how he had
waded from the north over Elivagar, c Icy Stream,’ bearing
Aurvandil in a basket on his back from Jotunheim. As one of
his toes stuck out of the basket, he broke it off and cast it up to
the sky, where it is now the star called c Aurvandil’s toe.’ He
also said that soon Aurvandil would be home, and in her joy
Groa forgot her incantations, and the stone remained in Thor’s
head. Hence a stone should not be cast across the floor, for the
stone is then stirred in his head . 65

A poem by Thjodolf of Hvin (tenth century) deals with this
myth as depicted on a shield, and gives a vivid description of
the rending of earth, the beating down of hail, and the shaking
of the rocks, as Thor drives forth in his wagon to the fight . 56

[Prometheus]

THE GREATER GODS — THOR


83

There are occasional references to the myth in the Eddie
and other poems. Thor calls Mjollnir £ Hrungnir’s slayer,’ and
he himself is £ Hrungnir’s killer,’ £ smiter of Hrungnir ,’ 1 skull-
splitter of Hrungnir.’ The stone shield is £ blade of Hrungnir’s
foot-soles ’ according to a kenning, because the giant stood on
it . 57 The fullest reference is in Harbardsljod. Harbard said
to Thor that he would await his attack and that since Hrungnir
died no stouter opponent has faced him. Thor replied:

‘ Thou now remindest me
How I with Hrungnir fought,

The insolent Jotun,

Whose head was all of stone;

Yet I made him fall,

And sink before me.’ 58

While the foundation of this myth may be the effect of a
thunder-storm in the mountains, the further modern interpreta-
tions of details in it can only be regarded as highly problem-
atical. The story of the part of the whetstone which stuck in
Thor’s head is possibly an ^etiological myth originating as an
explanation of images of the god Thor which, as among the
Lapps, had an iron nail with a piece of flint stuck in the head,
£ as if Thor should strike out fire.’ The purpose of this iron and
flint was probably to produce the sacrificial fire. On the high-
seat pillars of the Norsemen the image of Thor was carved and
in the head was set the reginnagli. In earlier times flint may
have been used instead of iron in these images . 59

Aurvandil, £ the Sea-wanderer,’ is the hero Orendil still sung
in an epic of the twelfth century, and possibly the Horvendil-
lus of Saxo, father of Amleth (Hamlet). The constellation
Earendel was also known to the Anglo-Saxons . 60 This constel-
lation is thought to be Orion.

Another giant adventure of Thor’s is that in Geirrod’s land,
related by Snorri. Loki, flying in Frigg’s hawk-plumage, went
to Geirrod’s court where he was shut up in a chest for three
months. In order to get free, he told Geirrod that he would


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


84

induce Thor to come there without his hammer or girdle.
Thor, having been persuaded, went off with Loki and spent the
night with the giantess Grid, mother of Vidarr, who told him of
Geirrod’s craft and lent him a pair of iron gloves, a girdle of
might, and a staff called ‘ Grid’s staff ’ ( Gridar voir). By aid
of the staff Thor crossed Vimur, greatest of rivers, Loki holding
on to the girdle of might. When they were in mid-stream
Gj alp, daughter of Geirrod, caused the waters to increase. Thor
sang: £ Swell not, O Vimur, I must wade through thee to the
giants’ garth. If thou swellest, so will swell my divine strength
in me up to Heaven.’ Going forward he saw how Gjalp caused
the swelling of the stream, and caused her to retire by throwing
a stone at her. Then taking hold of a rowan-tree on the bank,
he pulled himself out: hence the rowan is called c Thor’s de-
liverance.’ Reaching Geirrod’s court, Thor was given a seat
which moved under him to the roof. Thrusting his staff against
the rafters, he pushed back the chair, which now crashed on
Gjalp and her sister Greip, breaking their backs. Geirrod
called him to play games in a hall where great fires burned, and
taking with the tongs a white hot iron bar from the fire, he
threw it at Thor, who caught it with his iron gloves. Seeing
him about to throw it at him, Geirrod leaped behind an iron
pillar, through which the bar passed, as well as through Geirrod
and the wall into the earth. 61

This myth is the subject of a poem by Eilif Gudrunarson
{c. 976 a.d.), in which, not Loki, but Thjalfi accompanies
Thor. 62 Saxo Grammaticus, in his account of King Gorm’s
visit to the land of Geruthus (Geirrod), refers to the hurt done
by Thor to him and his daughters, here three in number. Geir-
rod’s land is full of treasure. The way to it across the ocean
is beset with peril. Sun and stars are left behind and the jour-
ney is taken down to chaos, to a land of darkness and horror,
and here the story is probably coloured by visions of Hell.
c Long ago the god Thor had been provoked by the insolence
of the giants to drive red-hot irons through the vitals of



PLATE XI

Thor’s Hammer Amulets

The upper, of silver, from Uppland, Sweden. The
lower, of silver decorated with gold and filigree work,
is from East Gotland, Sweden.





THE GREATER GODS — THOR


85

Geirrod, who strove with him. The iron slid farther, tore up
the mountain, and battered through its side. The women
were stricken by the might of his thunderbolts, and were
punished for their attempt on Thor, by having their backs
broken .’ 63

The myth of Hymir is told by Snorri and also in the Eddie
poem Hymiskvitha. Snorri says that Thor went from Mid-
gard on foot and in haste disguised as a youth, and arrived at
the giant Hymir’s abode. Next morning he wished to aid
Hymir in fishing, but Hymir said he was so small that he would
freeze. Thor’s anger was great, but he restrained himself
from attacking Hymir, as he had another purpose to fulfil. To
obtain bait he struck off the head of Hymir’s largest ox, Him-
inbrjot. He aided Hymir in rowing to the usual fishing-banks,
and beyond them, in spite of the giant’s fear of the Midgard-
serpent. Thor prepared a strong line with a large hook, on
which he fixed the ox’s head. Then he cast it overboard, in-
tending to beguile the Midgard-serpent. The monster snapped
at the bait and was caught by the hook, dashing off so quickly
that Thor’s fists crashed against the gunwale. Thor’s divine
anger came upon him: he braced his feet so firmly that they
dashed through the planking and struck the bottom of the ship.
Then he drew the serpent up, flashing fiery glances at it, while
it glared at him and blew venom. The giant was in terror and,
while Thor clutched his hammer, he fumbled for his knife and
hacked the line, so that the serpent fell back into the sea. Thor
hurled his hammer after it, and £ men say that he struck off its
head,’ but c I think it were true to tell thee that the serpent still
lives and lies in the encompassing sea.’ Then Thor struck
Hymir with his fist and sent him overboard, and he himself
waded ashore . 64

Snorri makes this adventure one taken in revenge for Thor’s
outwitting by Utgard-Loki, of which we shall hear presently.
The Hymiskvitha gives a somewhat different version of the
myth, showing that Snorri must have used other sources, and


86


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


it is the subject of several poems, verses of which are quoted by
him in Skaldskafarmal , 65

The Hymiskvitha , which is based on earlier lays, consists
of three incidents — the obtaining of a kettle for the gods’ ban-
quet, the Hymir story, and the tale of Thor’s goats. The
third has no real connexion with the rest of the poem, the two
incidents of which are much more welded together.

The gods were feasting and not satisfied, so they used
divining-twigs to discover where more drink could be obtained.
They learned that there was plenty in the hall of the giant or
sea-god Aigir, and to him they went, bidding him prepare a
feast for them. The giant sought revenge and bade Thor bring
a kettle in which to brew ale. The gods did not know where to
seek it, until Tyr, who here calls Hymir his father, said that
Hymir had a mighty kettle, a mile deep. Thor and Tyr set out
to the east of Elivagar at the end of Heaven, where Hymir
dwelt, first going to Egil’s house, where Thor left his goats.
At Hymir’s abode Tyr found his grandmother, who had nine
hundred heads, and his bright-browed mother, who brought
them ale. She hid them beneath the kettle, for Hymir was often
hostile to guests. Late returned the giant from hunting, icicles
rattling on his beard. His wife told him that Thor and their
son Tyr, long waited for, had come, and were sitting under the
gable, behind the beam. The giant looked at the gable: it gave
way and eight kettles fell, of which all but one — that under
which the gods were hiding — broke. The giant saw them,
and, though enraged, could not forget the duty of hospitality.
Three oxen were slaughtered and their flesh boiled: of these
Thor ate two, to Hymir’s amazement. The poem now passes
suddenly to the fishing incident. Hymir bids Thor go and get
bait from the oxen. On this expedition Hymir caught two
whales, while Thor was still preparing his hook with great
cunning. Having cast it he drew up the serpent, and struck
at its 1 hill of hair ’ (head) with his hammer, and it sank into
the sea.


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


87

Thor and Hymir returned to the giant’s house. Hymir
would reckon no one strong who could not break his glass cup.
Thor struck the stone pillars with it: they broke, but not the
cup. Now Hymir’s wife told Thor to strike the giant’s head
with the cup, for that was harder than the glass. Hymir be-
wailed his treasure, and said that now they might take the kettle
if they could move it. Tyr tried in vain: Thor raised it to his
head and set off. The giant with other many-headed ones out
of caves pursued. Thor put down the kettle, swung his hammer
and slew the giants. Thus the kettle was brought to the gods.
After the killing of the giants, one of Thor’s goats was found
with its leg hurt — this evil Loki had done. Nothing further
is said of this in the poem, and the goat incident is told by Snorri
in another connexion.

This lay consists mainly of a widespread folk-tale, to which
the episode of the Midgard-serpent has been attached, unlike
the prose account. Heroes come to a giant’s abode to seek some
coveted possession. In the adventure they are aided by the
giant’s wife or daughter, and so overcome him and obtain the de-
sired object. Thor and Tyr are here made the heroes of the
tale. The cup is suggestive of the giant’s Life-token, containing
his soul, but contrary to usual custom, though it is broken, the
giant does not immediately die. Such folk-tales usually tell
how the pursuers are stopped by transformed objects thrown
down by the pursued. This is lacking in the lay. That the
kettle signifies the sea, frozen in winter, i.e., in the power of the
Frost-giant, and freed by the first thunder-storm in spring,
seems a forced and unnatural explanation of the tale . 66 A
gigantic vessel would rather be the rock basin or shores contain-
ing the sea, not the sea itself.

The adventure with the Midgard-serpent prefigures the
coming time when, at the Doom of the gods, Thor will have to
engage with it. But this adventure may have given rise to the
conception of that final combat with the monster. The sugges-
tion of both prose and poetic narrative is that the serpent is slain


88


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


or receives a severe wound. The poem called Bragi’s Shield-
lay and the Husdrafa both describe the adventure, and in the
latter Thor struck the serpent a deadly blow and smote off its
head as it rose from the sea. 0 '

One of the finest Eddie poems, Thrymskvitha or ‘Lay of
Thrym,’ composed about 900 a.d., has, as its subject, the recov-
ery of Thor’s hammer from the giant Thrym, who had stolen it.
Ving-Thor awoke to find his hammer missing. Great was his
rage — hair bristling, beard shaking — as he sought it. Loki
was told of his loss, and together they sought Freyja and bor-
rowed her feather-dress. In this Loki flew to Jotunheim (as
he had flown to Geirrod’s realm), where Thrym, lord of the
giants, sat on a mound, making golden leashes for his dogs and
stroking the manes of his steeds. ‘ How fares it with gods and
elves: why comest thou alone to Jotunheim? ’ he cried to Loki.
‘ 111 fares it with gods and elves,’ replied Loki, ‘ hast thou hid-
den Hlorrithi’s hammer? ’ Thrym said it was hidden eight
miles deep: none would win it back, unless Freyja was given
him as a bride. Back flew Loki to Thor with the tidings, and
again they sought Freyja, Loki bidding her bind on the bridal
veil and haste to Jotunheim with him. So great was Freyja’s
anger that the gods’ dwelling was shaken and her necklace,
Brisinga-men, broke. The gods met in council. How was the
hammer to be recovered? Heimdall advised that Thor, dis-
guised as Freyja, should go to Thrym. Thor refused such un-
manly conduct, but Loki bade him be silent, for if the advice
were not followed, and he did not recover his hammer, the
giants would soon dwell in Asgard — a significant statement.

So the bridal-veil was put on Thor, with a woman’s dress,
keys at her girdle, a woman’s head-gear, and the necklace and
other gems. Loki attended him as a maidservant, and in the
goats’ chariot they sped to Jotunheim, while the mountains burst
and blazed with fire. Thrym bade a great feast to be prepared.
To his amazement Thor ate an ox, eight salmon, and all the
dainties provided for the women, and drank three huge vessels


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


89

of mead. Loki said that the bride had been fasting for eight
nights, in her longing for Jotunheim. Thrym, eager to kiss
the bride, lifted her veil, but at sight of the fiery eyes, leaped
back the length of the hall. Loki explained that for eight nights
the bride had not slept, in her longing for Jotunheim. Now
came the giant’s sister, asking the bridal fee — rings of gold
from the bride’s hand, if she would gain her love and favour.
Then Thrym commanded that the hammer be brought to hal-
low the bride, and placed on her knees, that the hand of Vor,
goddess of vows, might bless them both. Thor laughed in-
wardly and, seizing the hammer, slew Thrym and all the giants
and his sister.

Some dualistic conceptions may lie behind this myth. The
giant wishes to gain the power of the gods, and steals its symbol
and medium, the hammer Mjollnir. But what precisely the
giant represents, whether a primitive thunder-deity or demon
or the force of winter, is problematical. Thor, whose strength
is quiescent apart from his hammer, may represent here a nature
god whose power wanes in winter, but waxes in spring. If this
is the mythic foundation, the story is built upon it without itself
having any significance in nature phenomena. It is well told,
with much humour, and Thor excellently sustains the part of
the bride. The story is remembered in Norse folk-tales . 68

Here, there is a quest by Thor for his own property, as in
Hymiskvitha for that of another, in Jotunheim. In both tales
he eats in a gluttonish manner, and in both he ends by slaying
the giants.

Still another exploit of Thor’s against a giant is found in the
tale of the building of a citadel for the gods, which would be
proof against the Hill-giants and Frost-giants. This was done
by a giant craftsman ( smidr ) on condition that he should have
Freyja and the sun and moon. The occasion of the building
was after the attack on Asgard by the Vanir. The gods said
that the giant must complete it in one season, and that he would
lose his reward if it were not done by the first day of summer.


I


90 EDDIC MYTHOLOGY

The bargain was sealed with many oaths, since it was unsafe
for the giant to be in Asgard without truce, should Thor, who
was in the East fighting trolls, return. The giant asked permis-
sion for the help of his stallion Svadilfari. He began on the
first day of winter, and the gods were amazed to see the horse
drawing such huge stones. Within three days of summer, the
work was nearly done. The gods were inclined to evade their
promise, asking who had advised handing over Freyja or so
destroying air and sky as to propose taking sun and moon from
them. All agreed that Loki must have advised this. He de-
served death, if he could not devise means of outwitting the
giant. Accordingly, in the form of a mare he met Svadilfari,
who snapped his traces and rushed after the mare. The giant
fell into frenzy, knowing that the work would not now be
finished. The gods sent for Thor who came and struck the
giant into fragments with his hammer. Loki gave birth to a
foal with eight feet, Odin’s horse Sleipnir. 69

This bargain and Thor’s deliverance of the gods are referred
to in V olus pa , quoted also by Snorri:

£ Then went the powers to their judgment seats,

The all-holy gods, and thereon held council
Who had all the air with venom mingled
Or given Od’s maid to the giant race.

Then alone was Thor with anger swollen,

He seldom sits when the like he hears.

Oaths were broken, words and pledges,

The mighty bonds between them made.’

Behind this myth as applied to the gods and their citadel is the
traditional belief that large buildings of unknown origin must
have been the work of giants. Some German and Scandinavian
folk-tales closely resemble this story, though the method of
outwitting giant, troll, or devil is different. 70

Thor here appears as guardian and helper of the gods, as in
the Hrungnir myth. So Lokasenna shows his coming in to the


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


9i


banquet-hall where Loki has been slandering the deities, and
bidding him be silent or he will close his mouth. So the skald
Thorbjorn sang:

‘ Bravely fought Thor for Asgard
And the followers of Odin.’ 71

Other adventures of Thor with giants are mentioned in the
Eddas. Harbardsljod and the skald Bragi attribute to him the
destruction of Thjazi, ‘the Thick,’ and the casting of his eyes
to Heaven. The former deed, however, is ascribed to the gods
generally by Snorri and in Lokasenna; the latter to Odin by
Snorri .' 2 Thor slew the nine-headed Thrivaldi, broke the leg
of Leikn, and slew giantesses . 73 1 Eastward I fared and felled
the giants’ ill-working women,’ says Thor in Harbardsljod , and
again, c When I was in the East, guarding the river, the sons of
Svarang sought me and assailed me with stones. But little j oy
was theirs: they were first to sue for peace.’ He also slew the
brides of the berserkers in Hlesey, who were like she-wolves
rather than women. They crushed his ship and threatened him
with iron clubs, and drove off Thjalfi. In Hyndluljod Thor
is said by Freyja to love little the brides of the giants. Of the
tales here referred to or in the epithet £ slayer of Hrod ’ nothing
is known . 74

In these myths Thor is a boisterous, undaunted being, op-
ponent of the forces which are inimical to the rule of the gods
and, therefore, presumably, to the welfare of men. These
forces, personified as giants, are the wild, harsh, sinister aspects
of nature, all in nature that is opposed to the kindly forces of
growth and fertility.

Another long story, related by Snorri, may have less mythical
significance than some are disposed to discover in it. It rather
suggests the inventive imagination of one well-versed in folk-
tale formulae than a myth proper, though the first incident
belongs to Thor-mythology.

Thor and Loki stayed for the night at a peasant’s house,

[Prometheus]

EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


where the god slew his goats as a meal for his host and his
family and guests. He bade them lay the bones on the hides,
but Thjalfi, the peasant’s son, split a thigh-bone to extract the
marrow. Next morning Thor resuscitated the goats by swing-
ing his hammer, and, discovering that one was lame, was angry
and so terrified the peasant that he and his family offered all
they had as a recompense. Thor therefore took his son Thjalfi
and his daughter Roskva as his servants.

All four journeyed towards Jotunheim, and at night reached
a great forest, where they found a huge hall in which they lay
for the night. At midnight an earthquake caused them to seek
shelter in a side-chamber. Thor kept watch with his hammer
at its entrance. In the morning he went out and found a huge
man sleeping and snoring. He would have struck him with his
hammer, but for the first time his heart failed him. The giant
recognized him as Asa-Thor and, telling him that his name was
Skrymir, asked why he had dragged away his glove. Then
Thor saw that the hall with the inner chamber where they had
slept was Skrymir’s glove with its thumb. All now joined
forces and shared their food, but next night Thor was unable to
open the provision-bag, try as he might. Skrymir was asleep.
Seizing his hammer, he dealt him three successive blows on the
head. After each blow Skrymir said that a leaf had fallen on
him, then an acorn, then some bird-droppings. Next morning
he left the others after directing them to Utgard, and bidding
them not boast before its lord, Utgard-Loki.

Arrived at the castle of Utgard, its lord spoke of Thor as
a toddler, and asked what accomplishments he and the others
could show. Loki said that no one could eat food more rapidly
than he. A trough of food was set out and one Logi (Fire) was
set to eat against him, and ate meat, bones, and trough also.
The swift Thjalfi was beaten in a race by the lad Hugi. Thor
boasted of his drinking-feats, but could not do more in three
prodigious draughts than take a little from a horn which was
given him. Then he attempted to lift Utgard-Loki’s cat, but


93


THE GREATER GODS — THOR

could do no more than raise one of its feet from the ground.
Lastly he attempted to wrestle and throw Utgard-Loki’s nurse
Elli, but was himself brought to one knee. Now Utgard-Loki
bade them spend the night in feasting.

Next morning Thor admitted that he must be called a man
of little might, but Utgard-Loki said that he would never have
received him, had he known he was so strong. He himself was
Skrymir and had prepared ‘ eye-illusions ’ to outwit him. The
provision-bag was bound with iron, hence Thor could not undo
its apparent knots. He had struck three terrific blows, which
would have been fatal had not Skrymir placed a hill between
himself and them, and the hill was now deeply indented. Logi
was Fire and thus could consume meat, bones, and trough so
quickly. Hugi was Thought and Thjalfi could not outrun him.
The end of the horn was in the sea, so Thor could not empty it,
yet he had diminished the sea, and this is the cause of ebb-tides.
The cat was the Midgard-serpent, and Thor had raised it nearly
to Heaven. Elli was Old Age, and it was a marvel that Thor
had withstood her so long. Hearing all this, Thor clutched his
hammer and was about to strike, when he found that Utgard-
Loki had vanished, and where the castle stood was a wide plain.
Hence Thor resolved to encounter the Midgard-serpent again,
if he could . 75

The goat-episode is referred to in Hymiskvitha , as has been
seen. In Harbardsljod Harbard taunts Thor with cowardice
in creeping into the glove of Skrymir, here called Fjalar ; and in
Lokasenna Loki sneers at him for the same act and for believing
that he was no longer Thor, and for failing to open Skrymir’s
provision-bag . 76

How far the episodes of this story are to be interpreted in
terms of natural phenomena, or what these may be, is difficult
to say, in spite of many attempts in this direction. Some of the
mythical conceptions of the North are here — Thor in his con-
test with giant or unearthly powers ; the region of these powers;
Utgard, Outside Land; the power of Thor’s hammer, penetrat-


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


94

ing a hill; the might of fire; the Midgard-serpent; the idea
that a god is superior to old age, yet not immortal; the mythic
explanation of the origin of ebb-tide. But, on the whole, the
story — the longest in Snorri — is perhaps no more than a
skilful weaving of episodes and ideas into one tale, utilizing
M'drchen formulae — deception and glamour, by which even
gods are deceived, and the futility of a race with Thought or
of defeating Old Age. The episode of the restoration of Thor’s
goats to life has many folk-tale parallels, in which dead or dis-
membered persons or animals are restored. A near parallel is
found in Celtic mythology. One of the swine of the god
Manannan is slain and cooked, and afterwards restored to life,
in a story where the god and his wife are hosts to the adventurer
Cormac. Manannan’s swine were immortal, and myth said
of them that, killed one day, they came alive next day, and with
their flesh the gods were made immortal . 77

By some, Utgard-Loki is regarded as a form of Loki himself,
partly because the Midgard-serpent, his offspring, appears in
the story. But as Loki himself shares in the adventure, this is
unlikely, and he may be regarded as an abstraction of giant
power, against which, for once, Thor sets himself in vain. A
distorted form of Utgard-Loki, with traits of the medieval
devil, appears in Ugarthilocus whom Saxo describes as a being
or deity to whom sacrifices are paid. King Gorm was perplexed
about immortality. Some of his courtiers told him that the
gods should be consulted and suggested that Thorkill should
be sent on this mission. Thorkill sailed to a sunless region and
reached a place where he entered a foul cavern, at the entrance
to which were two huge men, swart, with beaked noses. One of
them told Thorkill that he had a dangerous journey before him
in his desire to visit a strange god. After four days roving in
darkness he would reach a dark land and discover Ugarthilocus
in his grisly caves. When Thorkill and his party reached these
caves they saw seats covered with serpents, and beyond this
another cave with a foul room where Ugarthilocus was bound


THE GREATER GODS — THOR


95


with chains. Each of his hairs was as large as a spear of cornel.
Thorkill plucked one from his beard as a token, and straightway
a foul stench nearly choked the visitors. Only five escaped with
Thorkill, pursued by demons. Eventually he reached Germany
and became a Christian. King Gorm was so affected by his
description of Ugarthilocus that he died. Many of the by-
standers perished of the smell from the hair when he pro-
duced it . 78 Gorm himself, after visiting Geirrod’s realm, on the
return journey had obtained fair weather by vows and peace-
offerings to Ugarthilocus . 79 In this narrative, Ugarthilocus is
rather a blending of Loki chained by the gods and the medieval
Satan bound in Hell, than the Utgard-Loki of Snorri’s story.

Another story, the subject of Alvissmal , shows how Thor
tricked a dwarf and caused his destruction. The narrative part
of this Eddie poem is slight: most of it consists of questions put
by Thor to the dwarf Alviss about the different names, mainly
fanciful, given to earth, Heaven, moon, sun, clouds, wind, calm,
sea, etc., by men, gods, Vanir, giants, dwarfs, and elves. These
different synonyms resemble the artificial kennings of the
scalds, but more recent investigation shows that some, at least,
are circumlocutions used e.g., at sea, to avoid the real names,
which were dangerous and tabu . 80 Alviss has come by night to
claim Thor’s daughter, Thrud, who had been promised him by
the gods in Thor’s absence. Thor confronts Alviss and asks
who he is and why he is so pale of face, as if he had been lying
with the dead. Alviss says that his home is under the earth,
beneath the rocks. He has come to speak with the Wagon-
man (Vagna-verr) and trusts that the gods will keep their word.
Thor says that he will break it, for, as father, he has foremost
right over the bride, nor was he present when the promise was
made. Alviss pretends to take Thor for a wandering man, such
is his appearance. £ I am Ving-Thor, the wide-wanderer, Long-
beard’s (Sidgrani’s, Odin’s) son, and against my will shall
thou take the maid,’ cries Thor. Alviss says he would fain gain
her through good will, and Thor says that he will not keep her


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


96

from a guest so wise, if only he will tell about every world of
which he asks him. Then follow the questions and answers ; at
the end of them Thor says he has never known such wealth of
knowledge in a single breast, but he has detained Alviss by craft
and betrayed him. ‘ The day has caught thee, O dwarf j the
sun (deceiver of Dvalin) shines in the hall.’ The dwarf is de-
stroyed by daylight, fatal to underearth beings, and Thor thus
overcomes him by craft, as he overcomes giants by strength.
Thor’s role of seeker after wisdom is unusual, and rather sug-
gests that of Odin in V olus-pa, V ajthrudnismal , etc.

If Miss Phillpotts is right in her theory that many of the
Eddie poems are folk-dramas, there is a distinct group in which,
as she points out, a god causes the death of his opponent. Odin
slays Vafthrudnir, Freyja destroys the giantess Hyndla by fire,
but the role of destroyer is mainly Thor’s, the great champion of
gods and men against all dangerous forces and especially the
Frost-giants. The power of frost was feared by the Northern
people, and a mighty winter was expected to destroy all life in
the future, as will be seen later. Such folk-dramas were not
performed merely with a view to entertainment. Hence when
Thor was represented destroying giants, the purpose was to
secure his victory in actual fights against these forces. The
dramas were, in fact, a kind of mimetic magic, intended to
bring about the result which was enacted. The time of the
action-drama may have been the winter festival of Yule, when
evil powers were in the ascendant. Then it was necessary to
strengthen the hands of the guardian of Midgard, the cham-
pion of gods and men. Miss Phillpotts also makes the inter-
esting suggestion that if the lost poem on which Snorri founded
his story of Thor and Hrungnir was a folk-drama, then an effigy
probably represented Hrungnir. This effigy, after the dramatic
tradition was lost, was regarded as an accessory to Hrungnir,
and called Mokkurkalfi . 81


CHAPTER VI


THE GREATER GODS— TYR

T HE Eddie god Tyr was known to other Teutonic tribes as
Zio or Ziu (OHG), Tyw or Tiw (AS). These names are
deduced from the Teutonic names of the third day of the
week — OHG Ziestag, AS Tiwesdaeg (English Tuesday), ON
Tyrsdagr and Tysdagr. The prevalence of these names in the
Rhine region, Upper Germany, North Germany, Saxony, and
Scandinavia, shows that this god was widely known. The primi-
tive form of the name was *Tiwaz, which has been regarded as
the equivalent of the Vedic Dyaus, Greek Zeus, Latin Diespiter
(Jupiter). Others connect *Tiwaz rather with a primitive
*deivos (= deus), Sanskrit devas , Latin divus , cf. Norse tivar,
L gods/ probably a plural of tyr> c god.’ This would agree with
the Norse use of tyr in the general sense of 1 god,’ as in Sigtyr,
Veratyr, Hangatyr, etc.

The former derivation would point to *Tiwaz as an early
Teutonic Sky-god. But the occurrence of the various forms of
the name in the titles of the third day of the week as equivalents
of dies Martis , suggests that this Sky-god had become a god of
war, or that greater emphasis had been laid on some of his
functions , 1 the result of the growing place of war as a business
of life among the Teutons.

Tacitus says that Mars had a high place with certain tribes
or groups of tribes. The Tencteri on the east side of the Rhine
regarded Mars as chief of the gods. The god who had a highly
sacred grove among the Semnones, a branch of the Suevi, and
to whom human sacrifices were offered, is supposed to have been
Zio. He is not named, but he is called regnator omnium . 2 In
the sixth century Jordanes says of the Goths that they sacrificed


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


98

their prisoners of war to Mars as the best means of placating
him. 3 Procopius similarly relates of the Scandinavians in the
sixth century that they regarded human victims as the best offer-
ing. They sacrificed them to Mars (Ares), whom they re-
garded as the greatest god. 4 The place of Tyr as War-god must
have decreased before the growing power of Odin. Yet in the
late Middle Ages an Icelander could translate in templo Martis
by t tys hofi, showing that Tyr’s place had not been forgotten. 5
It is also significant of the pre-eminence of Tiwaz that in inscrip-
tions which give Roman equivalents of the three great Teutonic
gods, Mars is often first. The Wessobrunner gloss (eighth
century), which speaks of the Suabian descendants of the Sem-
nones of that time, speaks of them as Cyuuari, £ Worshippers of
Ziu.’ 6 In the region of this people their chief town Augsburg
was called Ciesburc, £ Ziu’s town.’

Another name or epithet of the god is seen in the Thingsus
(Mars Thingsus) to whom Frisian soldiers from Twenthe (in
the territory of the Salic Franks) dedicated altars with fig-
ures in relief. These were brought to light at Housesteads on
the line of Hadrian’s wall in 1883. The names of the two
Alaisiagae, Bede and Fimmilene, are joined with that of Mars
Thingsus. The god is represented as a warrior, at his right
hand a swan or goose. Female figures, the Alaisiagae, hover
in the receding sides of the semi-circular reliefs, with sword or
staff in one hand, and a wreath in the other. Thingsus is re-
garded as a name of Ziu in his capacity as tutelary god of the
Thing or assembly, i.e., the Frisian cohort regarded as a unit or
Thing. The same divine name appears in Dinsdag, Dingsdach
(Tuesday). Thingsus has also been explained as meaning
£ Warrior.’ The explanations of the names and functions of
the two goddesses are numerous. They may possibly be equiva-
lents of Valkyries. 7

In the Eddas Tyr has a subordinate place and, if he was once
a Heaven-god, Odin had ousted him. He was called Odin’s
son, and even as War-god he had fallen into the background



PLATE XII


Altar to Mars Thingsus

This altar, dedicated to Mars Thingsus and the two
Alaisiagae, Bede and Fimmilene, is one of two found
at Housesteads on the line of Hadrian’s wall. They
were erected by Frisian soldiers from Twenthe (see
p. 98).




THE GREATER GODS — TYR


99


through Odin’s supremacy. Snorri says of him: 1 He is most
daring and stout-hearted, and has chief authority over victory
in battle. It is good that brave men should invoke him.’ £ A
Tyr-valiant man ’ is one who surpasses others in stoutness of
heart. Another proverbial saying, illustrating Tyr’s wisdom,
was to call the wisest man £ Tyr-prudent.’ ‘ Tyr cannot be
called a reconciler of men .’ 8 Runes for victory were written
on swords, Tyr being invoked in the process . 9 Scaldic kennings
for Tyr were £ god of battles,’ £ son of Odin,’ c the one-handed
god,’ and 1 fosterer of the wolf .’ 10 Famous chiefs were known
as Tyr’s offspring, and Tyr occurs in personal names and in
place-names.

The myths told of Tyr are few in number. Loki’s offspring,
the Fenris-wolf, was brought up by the yEsir, of whom Tyr
alone ventured to give him meat. When the gods saw how he
grew, and recalled the prophecies which told how the Wolf
would be their destruction, they resolved to bind him. Two
fetters in turn were tried, but these were broken in pieces. Then
the gods sent to the dwarfs, who made the fetter Gleipnir out
of six things — the noise of a cat in walking, a woman’s beard,
the roots of a rock, the sinews of a bear, the breath of a fish, and
the spittle of a bird (all non-existent things). The fetter was
soft and smooth, yet strong and sure. The gods then held
debate with the Wolf about submitting to have this fetter put
on him. He finally agreed, provided that one of them put his
hand in his mouth. None of the ASsir was willing to part with
a hand, until Tyr stretched out his and put it in the Wolf’s
mouth. The more the monster lashed out, the firmer became
the fetter, but Tyr’s hand was bitten off. Then the Wolf was
chained to a great rock, and there he is bound until the Doom of
the gods . 11 Much ingenuity has been expended in inventing
explanations of this myth. Beyond suggesting that Tyr is in
conflict with dark and demoniac powers, it does not explain itself
further. That Tyr, as god of war, should have lost a hand,
may reflect what often happened to warriors in battle. Similar


100


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


myths are told of gods elsewhere, e.g., the Irish Nuadu, whose
hand, struck off by an opponent, was replaced by one of silver j
Zeus, who lost his tendons 3 the Vedic Vispala, whose leg was
cut off in battle and replaced by one of iron. 12

When Tyr was present at Aigir’s feast, and spoke in defence
of Frey, Loki bade him be silent, for he could never fashion
friendship between men, and then taunted him with the loss
of his hand. Tyr replied that it boded ill for Loki’s Wolf, now
awaiting in chains the great battle. Loki retaliated by saying
that Tyr’s wife — mentioned for the first and only time — had
a son by him, and that Tyr never got a penny in compensation
for the wrong done to him. 13

The Hymiskvitha , which tells how Thor and Tyr, at the
latter’s advice, sought the mighty cauldron of the giant Hymir,
makes this giant father of Tyr by £ the white eye-browed one,’
with golden hair, who welcomes Tyr at Hymir’s abode, and who
may have been a goddess, not a giantess. A nine-hundred-
headed giantess, also present, is Tyr’s grandmother, whom he
loathed. Hence Tyr is called 1 kinsman of giants.* Tyr takes
no further part in the action, save that he twice tries to move
the kettle, but cannot, and then, when Thor has raised it, re-
turns with him to the .Eisir.

The meaning of this myth as well as of Tyr’s relationship to
the giant Hymir has been the occasion of much debate. While
it is in keeping with mythology that an important god should
be related to a giant, it is possible that c Tyr ’ in this poem means
not the War-god, but is used merely in the sense of ‘ the god.’
This god might be Loki, for at the end of the poem we hear that
Thor on his return found his goats lame, and this was Loki’s
doing. Snorri gives an incident of the laming of Thor’s goat in
another connexion, when he and Loki were on a journey. 14

The only other reference to Tyr in the Eddas is the notice
of his conflict with the dog Garm at the Doom of the gods, when
each slew the other. 16


CHAPTER VII


THE VANIR GROUP— NJORD

A CCORDING to Snorri, Njord (ON Njer^r) is third of
the Aisir, though not of their race, for he was reared in
the land of the Vanir and given by them as a hostage to the
Aisir . 1 This agrees with other passages in Snorri and in the
Poetic Edda , where Njord appears among the Aisir, e.g., at
Aigir’s banquet. It is based on passages in V df thrudnismal and
Eokasenna. In the former Odin says:

[Prometheus]

* Tell me . . .

Whence Njord came among the ^Esir’s sons?

O’er fanes and shrines he rules by hundreds,

Yet was not among the A£sir born.’

Vafthrudnir answers:

1 In Vanaheim wise powers created him,

And to the gods a hostage gave.

At the Doom of the gods he will return
To the wise Vanir.’

In the latter Loki addresses Njord and tells him that he was
sent eastward and given to the gods as a hostage . 2 Hence he is
£ god of the Vanir,’ £ kinsman of the Vanir,’ or simply £ the
Van .’ 3 His dwelling is in Noatun, £ Ship-place ’ or £ Haven.’

‘ There Njord built himself the high hall,

Where the faultless ruler of men
Sits in his high-timbered fane.’ 4

Njord’s wife is Skadi, daughter of the giant Thjazi, but ap-
parently before he came among the vEsir, he had two children


102


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


by his unnamed sister, Frey and Freyja. With this Loki
taunted him at ^Eigir’s banquet:

‘ I will no longer keep secret what I heard,

With thy sister thou hadst a son
Hardly worse than thyself.’ 5

Njord rules the course of the wind and stills the sea, storm,
and fire. Men call on him in sea-faring and hunting. So rich
and abundant in goods is he, that he can give plenty of lands or
gear j hence men invoke him for such things. Thus he is ‘ god
of wealth-bestowal,’ and, according to Vajthrudnismal he is
rich in altars and shrines . 6 Njord has thus two distinct divine
attributes — he is a Sea-god and a god of wealth and prosperity,
‘ a Sea-god of riches .’ 7

His sister- wife was perhaps the goddess Nerthus of whom
Tacitus speaks as worshipped by seven tribes in North-east Ger-
many, and whose name exactly corresponds to that of Njord,
from * nerthuz. Golther says: ‘the general German word
nertu, “ good will,” as a name denoting character, was extended
to persons. * Nerthuz means the beneficent, friendly divinity,
and may thus be used either of a god or a goddess .’ 8

Tacitus says of Nerthus: ‘The Reudingi, Aviones, Anglii,
Varini, Eudoses, Suardones, Nuithones (tribes of the Ingae-
vones) unite in worshipping Nerthus, that is Mother Earth, and
think that she mingles in the affairs of men and visits the na-
tions. There is a sacred grove on an island in the ocean (prob-
ably Seeland), and in it stands a wagon covered with a cloth.
The priest alone may touch it. He becomes aware of the pres-
ence of the goddess in the innermost place, and follows her with
the greatest reverence as she is drawn about by cows. Then are
there joyful days, places of festivity, wheresoever the goddess
comes as a guest. They do not engage in wars nor take up arms.
Weapons are closed. Peace and quiet alone are then named and
loved, until the same priest restores to her temple the goddess,
satisfied with the intercourse of mortals. Thereupon the vehicle


THE VANIR GROUP — NJORD 103

and its covering and, if it be credible, the goddess, are washed in
a secret lake. Slaves do this service, and the lake immediately
swallows them up.’ 9

All this suggests rites of fertility and a festival which would
most naturally occur in spring. Nerthus is akin to Njord in
functions, though different in sex. In spite of Tacitus’ assertion
some, like Mannhardt, think that Nerthus was a male divinity j
others, e.g., A. Kock, that Njord, a male god, had taken the
place of a female. 10 But it is quite possible that a pair of deities,
regarded as brother and sister, and bearing similar names, were
worshipped together, along with a third, their son Frey, part
of whose ritual, as we shall see, resembled that of Nerthus.
Another theory is that originally Njord was a goddess (Ner-
thus), not a god, and that Skadi, regarded as a female in the
Eddas y was a god. 11

From Seeland, where it was indigenous, this cult passed to
Sweden and Norway, and there, apart from the witness of the
EddaSy many places bear the name of Njord, showing that his
cult was widespread. Thence the cult passed to Iceland. In
literary sources, Njord and Frey are constantly mentioned
together — £ so help me Frey and Njord and Thor.’ Together
they dispense riches. 12 Hence an old Icelandic phrase , 1 as rich
as Njord.’

In an interesting myth Snorri makes Skadi the wife of Njord.
The giant Thjazi had been slain by the AEsir, and in panoply of
war his daughter Skadi went to Asgard to avenge him. The
AEsir offered her atonement, viz., to choose a husband from
their number, but to choose him by the feet only, for she would
see no more than these in making her selection. Her choice
fell on him whom she thought to be Balder, but the chosen one
was Njord. In the bond of reconciliation it was also agreed that
the gods must make her laugh, which she deemed impossible.
Loki accomplished this, however, by an act which suggests
cruelty and obscenity rather than humour. 13

In Saxo’s account of the mythic Hadding an incident re-


i04


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


sembling this method of choice occurs. A giant had taken in
troth Ragnhild, daughter of Hakon, king of the Nitheri. Had-
ding overcame him, but was wounded. Ragnhild tended him,
not knowing who he was, and, in order not to forget him, en-
closed a ring in his wound. At a later time, her father gave her
permission to choose a husband, and when the suitors were as-
sembled, she felt their bodies and recognized Hadding by means
of the ring . 14

The identification motif in Saxo is a form of a folk-tale
formula, but the naked foot incident of the Edda has been con-
nected with marriage rites in which only the foot of the future
spouse is seen, and with fertility rites in which bare feet play a
part. Schroder thinks that Nerthus-Njord is to be explained
as 1 dancer ’ (cf. Sanskrit nart y ‘ to dance ’), and that the priest
and priestess who represented this pair of fertility deities carried
out the ritual with bare feet . 15

Skadi wished to dwell in her father’s abode in the mountains,
Thrymheim, ‘ Home of noise,’ of which Grimnismal says that
here Thjazi, the all-powerful Jotun, dwelt, but Skadi, bright
bride of the gods, now inhabits the old dwelling of her father.
Njord wished to dwell near the sea. They made a compact to
dwell nine nights in Thrymheim and three at Noatun. When
Njord came back from the mountains to Noatun he sang:

‘ I love not the mountains, I dwelt not long in them,

Nine nights only;

Sweeter is to me the song of the swan
Than the wild wolf’s howl.’

To this Skadi replied:

‘ My sleep was troubled on the shore of the sea
By the screaming of sea-birds.

Every morning the sea-mew wakens me
Returning from the deep.’

These verses, quoted by Snorri, are from a lost Eddie poem.
Skadi then went up to the mountains and dwelt in Thrymheim.


105


THE VANIR GROUP — NJORD

She goes on snow-shoes and shoots wild creatures with her bow
and arrows. Hence she is called £ goddess ’ or £ lady of the
snow-shoes .’ 16 Skadi’s departure from Njord is referred to
by the skald Thord Sjareksson who speaks of her ‘grieving
at the Van’s side .’ 17

Saxo relates a similar story of Hadding and Ragnhild, quot-
ing in Latin verses which correspond to those cited by Snorri.
After years spent in disuse of arms, Hadding reproached him-
self with dwelling in the hills and not following sea-faring.
The cry of the wolves, the howl of beasts, keep him from sleep.
The ridges and hills are dreary to one who loves the sea. Far
better to ply the oar and revel in sea-fights than to dwell in
rough lands, winding woodlands, and barren glades. Ragnhild
sang of the shrill bird vexing her as she stayed by the sea, and
the noise of the sea-mew keeping her from sleep. Safer and
sweeter is the enjoyment of the woods. Hence it has been sup-
posed that Hadding is identical with Njord, or his rebirth, but
it is likely that Saxo merely transferred the Eddie poem to the
story of Hadding . 18

In spite of Skadi’s separation from Njord, as told by Snorri,
she appears with him at Aigir’s banquet in Lokasenna and also
in the Introduction to Skirnismal. In the former poem she tells
Loki how he will be punished, i.e., by being bound by the gods
on the rocks with bowels torn from his £ ice-cold son.’ Loki
replies that he was first and last at the fight when her father
was slain. Skadi says that even so from her dwellings and
fields shall ever come forth cold counsels for him. Loki
then reminds her that she spoke more mildly when she
invited him to her bed. Snorri connects Skadi with the myth
of Loki’s punishment. She fastened a venomous serpent
above him, where he was bound, and its poison dropped on his
face . 19

The explanation given by some scholars of the nine nights’
stay in Thrymheim and three at Noatun, is that £ nights ’ sig-
nifies £ months,’ and that the sea in the extreme North is open


io6


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


only for three months for ship-faring. For the other nine it is
sealed by ice and winter-storms . 20

Snorri’s Heimskringla , following the Y nglinga-tal , gives a
different version of this myth. Njord wedded a woman Skadi,
but she would have nothing of him, and hence was wedded to
Odin, and had to him many sons, one of whom was Soeming. A
poem by Eyvind is cited in support of this, which says that
Soeming was begotten by Odin on a giant-maiden when they
dwelt in Mannheim. To Soeming Norway traced her line of
kings, or more strictly speaking the rulers of Halogaland . 21
The theory of alternating twin gods sharing one mate has been
applied here, but Skadi is regarded as the god and Njord the
goddess, shared by Odin and Skadi . 22

Skadi has been held to be a representative of the Finns and
Lapps who peopled the north of Norway. She may have been
one of their goddesses, regarded as a giant’s daughter, because
the inhospitable Northern region was akin to or identical with
Jotunheim. How she came to be associated with Njord and
Odin is far from clear. But a cult war may have been con-
sidered mythically as a war of Scandinavian and Finnish deities,
ending in a pact and marriage. R. M. Meyer sees in the dis-
puted residence incident of Skadi and Njord an ikonic myth,
i.e., a myth based on the history of an image of Skadi which had
been carried off to Noatun, and, after a war, shared a residence
with Norsemen and Finns . 23

The euhemeristic notices of Njord in the Y nglinga-saga con-
firm the Eddie account of him as a god of prosperity. He be-
came ruler after Odin’s death. The Swedes call him lord and
he took tribute of them. In his days there was peace, and hence
the Swedes thought that he swayed the year’s plenty and men’s
prosperity. He died in his bed and was marked for Odin ere
he died . 24

The cult of Njord was associated with that of Frey, for the
two deities are mentioned together both in taking oaths and in
drinking toasts at feasts. First came Odin’s toast for victory




PLATE XIII


Scenes from the Larger Golden Horn

The upper design is assumed to depict the Fenris-
wolf and the gods. He is seen bound in the lower part
of the design, with Tyr to the left, his hands bitten off.
See p. 99.

In the lower design two wolves are supposed to be
attacking the sun (the figure with a face, above which
is a sun-symbol). Below this is a representation of
Hel-gate with reptiles and rivers (to right); the posts
are made of bones of the dead. The interpretation is
doubtful.




THE VANIR GROUP — NJORD 107

and power, second Njord’s, and third Frey’s for good sea-
sons and peace. 25 Egil speaks of Njord and Frey as wealth-
givers, and prays that both gods may be angry with king Eirik. 26
Little light, however, is thrown upon the personality of this god
as a figure of popular worship and esteem, beyond the reference
to his many shrines in V afthrudnismal. We may suppose that
this god of earth’s fruitfulness and of prosperity, when his cult
passed among sea-farers and fishermen, became also a god of
the riches of the sea.


CHAPTER VIII


THE VANIR GROUP— FREY

F REY (ON Freyr), son of Njord, probably by his sister,
is like him one of the Vanir but reckoned among the iTsir.
He is £ the bold son of Njord ’j his ‘ mighty son ’j his £ noble
son .’ 1 Among the Tisir he is £ the most renowned,’ £ foremost
of the gods,’ £ whom no man hateth,’ £ the first of all the heroes
in the gods’ house .’ 2 His name, which corresponds to Gothic
frauja , OHG fro , and AS frea, means £ lord,’ and was thus at
first a title. Snorri says of him that, like his sister Freyja, he is
fair of face and mighty. He rules over rain and sunshine and
also over the increase of the earth. Good is it to call on him for
fruitful seasons and peace, for he can give peace and prosperity
to men. He is god of the fruitful season and of the gifts of
wealth. Thus Frey is closely akin to Njord in his functions. It
is also said of him that £ he harms not maids, nor men’s wives,
and frees the bound from their fetters.’ He is also £ the battle-
bold Frey .’ 3

Frey’s seat is in Alfheim, the land of the Alfar or elves, given
him by the gods as a £ tooth-gift ’ in ancient times, i.e., a present
to a child on cutting its first tooth. £ As the elves are especially
connected with the furthering of vegetable life (the places on
the turf where they have danced betray themselves by the rich-
ness of the grass), so the god of fruitfulness is naturally their
overlord .’ 4

His possessions are Skidbladnir, £ swiftest and best of
ships,’ and made with great skill of craftsmanship by dwarfs.
It was given to Frey, perhaps because he, one of the Vanir, had
to do with ship-faring. It is the ideal magic ship, so large that
all the gods may man it with their weapons and armaments.


THE VANIR GROUP — FREY


109


As soon as its sails are hoisted, wherever it is going it has a fair
wind, like certain ships in the Sagas. When not in use it can be
folded up and put in the pouch . 5 Possibly this ship betokens
the clouds. Frey’s sword fights of itself or if a worthy hero
wields it . 6 His horse, Blodughofi, can go through 1 the dark
and flickering flames .’ 7 To him also is ascribed the ring
Draupnir which multiplies itself — a symbol of fertility appro-
priate to Frey . 8 His chariot, in which he drives at Balder’s
funeral, is drawn by the boar Gullinbursti, £ Gold bristles,’ or
Slidrugtanni, £ Fearful tusk,’ or, according to the Husdrapa of
Ulf Uggason, Frey rode on the boar itself. This boar was made
by dwarfs and could run through air and water better than any
horse} the glow from its mane and bristles was so great that,
wherever the boar was, no matter how dark the night, there
would be sufficient light. It is also called Hildisvini, £ Battle
swine,’ £ which shines with bristles of gold . 9

Frey’s boar is undoubtedly connected with the offering to
him of boars in sacrifice, especially the sonar goltr , £ atonement
boar,’ on the eve of the Yule festival. The largest boar was
given to Frey, and it was so holy that when it was led into the
hall, oaths were sworn and vows made while the hand was laid
over its bristles. The purpose of the sacrifice was to cause the
god to be favourable to the New Year. According to the
Hervarar-saga king Heidrek offered the boar to Frey, but an
earlier reference does not connect the sonar goltr with Frey . 10
A survival of the sacrifice is found in the cakes baked in Sweden
at Yule in the form of a boar. Whether all the references to the
boar in Teutonic folk-custom or story collected by Grimm are
connected with the cult of Frey is doubtful. The ceremonial
bringing-in of a boar’s head at Christmas banquets in England,
still surviving at Queen’s College, Oxford, cannot be definitely
shown to point to a cult of Frey among the Saxons . 11 According
to Tacitus the Aestii worshipped the IS/Later deum , and wore as
an emblem of that superstition the forms of boars, which took
the place of arms or other protection and guaranteed victory . 12


1 10


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Some have seen in this native goddess Freyja who, in Hyndlu-
Ijody rides a boar with golden bristles. The custom of wearing a
boar’s image or helmets in that form as protectives was common
among the Anglo-Saxons, as their poetry shows, as well as in
Germany. It need not necessarily point to a cult of Frey, but
to a wider belief in the swine as a sacred or magic animal . 13

Frey’s servants are Skirnir, prominent in Skirnismal , and
Byggvir and his wife Beyla, both of whom opposed Loki
at ASgir’s banquet and were addressed contemptuously by
him.

At the Doom of the gods Frey contends with Surt and falls,
because he lacks his sword which he had given to Skirnir . 14
Reference is made to Frey’s slaying of Beli, not with his sword,
but with his fist or the horn of a hart. Hence he is called ‘ ad-
versary of Beli,’ £ Beli’s hater,’ or £ fair slayer.’ Beli may be
the brother of Gerd, of whom Frey was enamoured, for she
speaks of him as her brother’s murderer . 15

Like Njord, Frey is accused by Loki of having a sister-wife,
Freyja, the only reference to this save in the Y nglinga-saga . 16
Both Skirnismal and Snorri give the story of his love for the
giant’s daughter Gerd, called his wife in Hyndluljod: £ Gerd,
Frey’s spouse, was Gymir’s daughter ; Orboda bore her to the
old giant .’ 17 Orboda was one of the Hill-giants’ race. Snorri
calls Gymir a man, but he was certainly a giant. His daughter
was fairest of women. One day Frey sat himself on Hlid-
skjalf and looked over the worlds, even to Jotunheim, where
he saw a woman raising her hands to open the door of a house.
Brightness gleamed from her arms over sea, sky, and all worlds.
Frey was filled with melancholy, represented by Snorri as a
punishment for sitting in Odin’s seat, but in Skirnismal there is
no word of this, and perhaps this seat was Frey’s originally, not
Odin’s. Skadi (or Njord, according to an emendation of the
text and also in Snorri’s version) sent for Skirnir and bade him
ask Frey for whose sake he was so melancholy. Skirnir feared
that he would get evil answers from him, but he questioned him

[Prometheus]

THE VANIR GROUP — FREY


hi


boldly and learned the cause. He was deeply in love with
Gerd, yet ‘ none of the ^Esir or Alfar will grant that we may
live together.’ He asked Skirnir to go and woo her for him and
bring her to him. Skirnir asked for Frey’s horse and magic
sword, and with these set off. He spoke to the horse, saying
that it was dark and now it was time to travel across the wild
fells, over the giants’ land. Either they would return together
or the powerful giant would take them. Then he reached
Jotunheim and Gymir’s dwelling, guarded by dogs. On a hill
sat a herdsman who, when Skirnir asked for speech with Gerd,
said that this could never be. Meanwhile within the dwelling
Gerd heard a noise, and learned from her servant that a man
had dismounted at the gate. She bade the servant bring him in,
though she feared that he was her brother’s slayer. When he
entered, she asked him if he was one of the Alfar, of the Aisir’s
sons, or of the wise Vanir, since he had come through the flicker-
ing flame to her abode. He said that he was none of these, and
offered her golden apples if she would say that Frey was dearest
to her. She refused them, saying that she would never be
Frey’s. He offered her the ring Draupnir: this also she refused.
Then he threatened to behead her, but she was unmoved and
told him that he might fight Gymir if he liked. Skirnir replied
that the sword would kill her father, and threatened her with
the magic power of his staff and with curses. She will go where
men will nevermore see her. On the eagle’s hill she will sit,
facing Hel, and her meat will be loathsome to her. Even the
Frost-giant Hrimnir will stare at her and she will become better
known than Heimdall. Grief and terror will afflict her in the
giants’ land, and she will dwell with a three-headed giant.
Odin is angry with her; Frey will hate her; the gods’ wrath
will be upon her. Skirnir bade all Jotuns, all Frost-giants, the
sons of Suttung, and the Aisir hear how he forbade her ever to
know the joy of love. Hrimgrimnir is the giant who will have
her beneath near the doors of Hel, and to the Frost-giants’ halls
she will daily crawl in misery. Then he wrote four runes, by


1 1 2


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


which she would know unquenched desire, though he would cut
them out again if she relented.

As a result of these curses Gerd yielded, though she said that
she had never thought to love one of the Vanir. She bade
Skirnir tell Frey to meet her nine nights hence in the secret
wood called Barri, where she will be his. On hearing this
from Skirnir Frey said: 1 One night is long, two are longer,
how can I bear three? Often has a month seemed less to me
than half a night of longing now.’

Gerd is included among the Asynjur by Snorri, and Loki
taunts Frey at Aigir’s banquet with buying her with gold, sell-
ing his sword at the same time. Hence when Muspell’s sons
come riding he will have no sword . 18 The £ flickering flame,’
vafrlogi , by which Gerd’s abode is surrounded, is a magic de-
fence against intrusion, and only by magic or supernatural means
can a hero go through it. It is found thrice in the Eddie poems.
The second reference to it is in Svipdagsmal where it surrounds
the hall where Menglod is secured. Svipdag makes his way
through it to her, his destined bride. The third reference is in
Sigrdrifumal , where Brynhild is held in a magic sleep imposed
by Odin, in a hall on a mountain surrounded by fire. Through
it Sigurd makes his way.

Frey was sometimes called Ingvi-Frey or Ingunar-Frey, a
name connected with that of Ingw, the tribal ancestor or epony-
mous hero of the Ingvaeones, the group of tribes dwelling in
Schleswig-Holstein, from whom sprang the Saxons, Anglo-
Saxons, and Frisians. Ingunar is either a distorted form of
Ingvi or the genitive of a feminine Ingun, possibly Frey’s un-
named mother or his consort. The name would mean £ Frey
of Ingun ’ or £ Lord (Husband) of Ingun.’ The Ynglings, the
earliest race of the kings of Sweden, regarded themselves as
descendants of Frey, called Yngvi in the Ynglinga-saga.
1 They were kindred of the god Frey ’ or £ held him to be the
founder of their race,’ says Saxo, speaking of Swedish heroes . 19
Yngvi’s people were the Swedes. There are, however, two


THE VANIR GROUP — FREY


”3

genealogies. One is that of the Saga, which begins with Nj ord,
then Frey or Yngvi. The other is that of the Islendinga-bok ,
which begins with Yngvi, who is followed by Njord, Frey, etc.
Whether Yngvi and Frey were actually different mythic per-
sonages, and if so, why they became merged in each other, can-
not be determined. Perhaps the connexion lay in the fact that
the king of the Ingwines or East Danes was called Frea Ing-
winaj their tribal ancestor was Ing. Ing first dwelt with the
East Danes, and then crossed the sea, his wagon following him . 20
Ing is the same as Yngvi, and as Frey means ‘ lord,’ Yngvi may
have been the personal name of the god. The Ingvaeones of
Tacitus, who dwelt in the coast region between the North Sea
and the Baltic, are to be traced back to Yngvi or Frey, their
tribal deity. Their region was also the seat of the Nerthus cult.
Thus the cult of Yngvi-Frey passed thence to Sweden, where its
chief seat was Upsala.

In his account of the Hadding saga, Saxo says that this mythic
hero was attacked on one occasion by a sea-monster which he
slew. But as he was exulting in his deed, a woman appeared
who said that he would suffer the wrath of the gods, for his
sacrilegious hands had slain one of them in disguised form.
So Hadding, ‘ slayer of a benignant god,’ in order to appease the
deities, sacrificed dusky victims to Frey at an annual feast, which
he left posterity to follow. This rite was called by the Swedes
Froblot, ‘ sacrifice to Frey.’ Saxo also says that Frey, ‘ satrap
of the gods,’ took up his abode not far from Upsala, where he
exchanged for a ghastly and infamous sin-offering the old cus-
tom of prayer by sacrifice which had been used for many genera-
tions. He paid to the gods abominable offerings by beginning
to sacrifice human victims . 21 The Hakonar-saga also says that
Frey raised a great temple at Upsala and set his capital there,
endowing it with all his revenues, lands, and movables . 22

The Ynglinga-saga calls Frey a rich and generous lord under
whom peace and fruitfulness abounded. He took the realm
after Njord and was ‘lord of the Swedes.’ The ‘Peace of


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


ii4

Frodi ’ began in his time and good years in all lands, which the
Swedes ascribe to Frey. He raised a temple at Upsala and was
held dearer than the other gods, because the people were
wealthier in his days. Gerd was his wife, and he was called
Yngvi and his kindred were the Ynglings. When he died he
was put in a barrow with a door and three windows, and the
Swedes were told that he was still alive. He was guarded there
for three winters, and gold was put through one of the windows,
silver through the second, and copper through the third. Peace
reigned during these three years. When at last the Swedes
learned that he was dead, they would not burn him, but called
him £ god of the world ’ and sacrificed to him for plenteous
years, thinking that while his body was in Sweden, peace and
plenty would abound . 23

The £ Peace of Frodi ’ is often spoken of in Northern litera-
ture. Frodi was an early Danish king, more mythic than real,
and in his time this Peace began — a kind of golden age.
Snorri says that during it no man injured another, even if that
other were his brother’s or father’s slayer. No thief or robber
was known, and a gold ring lay long untouched on Jalang’s
heath. This was at the time when Augustus reigned at Rome.
The Peace came to an end when two giant maids, Fenja and
Menja, ground out of a magic mill a host against Frodi, who
was slain. They did this because he forced them to grind out
gold. This myth of a golden age was doubtless connected with
the cult and person of Frey, whose name is to be found in that
of Snorri’s king Frodi and the several kings of that name in
Saxo . 24

Behind all these euhemeristic notices of Frey lies the evi-
dence that his cult had been carried into Sweden from else-
where, and that there this god, who is said to have himself in-
troduced the cult and arranged the sacrifices, had a prominent
place. He was called blotgud Svia, 1 the sacrificial god of
Sweden,’ and Sviagod , 1 god of the Swedes.’ It is clear also
that Frey was regarded as a god of fertility and that human



-




. - '•







PLATE XIV
Frey

Upper figure, to right. Ithyphallic squatting image,
probably of Frey, intended to be carried in its owner’s
purse and buried with him. From Sbdermanland,
Sweden, tenth century.

Lower design, to right. One of several golden
plates representing the sacred marriage of a god of fer-
tility (possibly Frey) and a goddess. Found in the
neighbourhood of the farm of Frojsland (‘ land of
Frey ’), south-west Norway. See p. 1 1 6 .

Design on left. The sacred marriage depicted on a
tenth century runic stone, the figures represented sepa-
rately because of the form of the stone. From the
same district as the gold plate.





THE VANIR GROUP — FREY


ii 5

sacrifices were offered in his cult. As in other fertility cults,
that of Frey was connected with generation. Adam of Bremen
says that at Upsala the image of Fricco (Frey), who bestowed
peace and joy on men, stood beside those of Odin and Thor, and
was invested with ingenti 'pria.'po — an obvious symbol of the
god’s influence on fertility. He also says that, at the nine
years’ festival, unseemly songs were sung during the sacrifices . 25
We do not know that this was a Frey festival, but if so, the notice
would correspond to what Saxo says of the sacrifices at Upsala,
that Starkad, who had lived for seven years with the sons of
Frey, left that place because he was so disgusted with the effem-
inate gestures, the play of the mimes, and the ringing of bells.
Saxo also declares that the legendary Fro, king of Sweden, put
the wives of Siward’s kinsfolk in a brothel and delivered them to
public outrage. If Fro is Frey, this might be a memory of the
erotic aspects of his cult . 26 The only myth of Frey reported in
the Eddas — his love-sickness for Gerd and his strong desire
for her — points to the nature of his personality and worship.

Frey’s image was taken in a wagon through the land at the
close of winter, under the care of a priestess, who was regarded
as his wife and was set over his sacred place. From Upsala the
procession traversed the land, and was everywhere received with
joy and with sacrifices, in expectation of a fruitful year. A curi-
ous story is told of this in the Olafs-saga Tryggvasonar by a
Christian saga-man. Gunnar Helming had fled from Norway
to escape the consequences of a suspected crime. In those days
there were great sacrifices to the gods, and Frey had long re-
ceived more than the others. His image was so enchanted that
he used to speak to the people out of it. Gunnar, having come
to Sweden, placed himself under Frey’s protection. The priest-
ess received him, though the god did not seem favourable to
him, and, at the time of the procession, she bade Gunnar come
and feast with Frey and her. Gunnar went with the servants
of the god, who abandoned the wagon during a snow-storm in
the hills. Gunnar led it, but, feeling tired, climbed into it.


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


1 16

After a time the priestess bade him go and lead the wagon, for
Frey was against him. He obeyed, but soon after resumed his
seat, saying that he would risk standing up against Frey if he
opposed him. He wrestled with the god, and, being nearly
overcome, he thought that if he conquered, he would return to
Norway and accept the Christian faith. The evil spirit which,
according to the narrative, was in the image, now abandoned it.
Gunnar broke the image and himself personated the god. At
the place where a feast was prepared in expectation of the visit,
the people marvelled that the god and his priestess should have
come through the storm, still more that he should come among
them and drink like men! The time was spent in feasting, but
the counterfeit Frey would accept no offerings save those of
gold, silver, and fine garments. In time the priestess became
pregnant, and this, with the fine weather, was regarded as a
good omen for a fruitful year. The news of the power of the
Swedish god spread far and wide. King Olaf of Norway heard
of it, and, suspecting the truth, sent Gunnar’s brother to Sweden.
He found Gunnar who, with priestess and treasure, returned to
Norway and was baptized . 27

The resemblance of this procession to that of Nerthus and her
priest, as recorded eight centuries before by Tacitus, is striking,
and suggests the connexion of Frey and Nerthus as deities of
fertility, Nerthus, perhaps, being wife or mother of Frey. Not
improbably priest and goddess or god and priestess were be-
lieved to celebrate the ‘ sacred marriage 5 during this festival
time in order to promote fertility. In the Nerthus rite a woman
would represent the goddess ; in the Frey rite a man would
represent the god. In the story, Gunnar acts as the god and as
husband of the priestess. The story would thus be reminiscent
of actual custom, with priest and priestess as god and goddess.
Evidence of such a ritual in prehistoric times in Norway has
been collected by Prof. Magnus Olsen, the rite surviving in
folk-custom and being represented on engraved gold plates
which had been buried in the earth. Such a ritual may lie be-


THE VANIR GROUP — FREY


117

hind the story in Skirnismal. Skirnir is by some regarded as
merely Frey himself, whether or not he is to be taken as the
surviving memory of the mortal who took the part of the god
in the folk-drama, the god himself being also represented by an
effigy for which 4 the role of Gerd’s seeker was too active .’ 28
Frey’s priestess is called a £ temple-priestess,’ but he had also
priests . 29

Like Njord, Frey was besought to give fair winds to voy-
agers, and he was frequently named with him and with Thor,
e.g., in taking an oath: ‘So help me Frey, Njord, and the
almighty god ’ (Thor ). 30 Frey was thus a god of many func-
tions — light, sunshine, fertility, fruitfulness, and fair winds.
Sagas speak of sacrifices of bulls to Frey. Libations were also
offered or toasts drunk to him along with those to other gods —
Odin or Thor, and Njord, Frey’s and Njord’s being for fruitful
seasons and peace. Thorkel, who had been driven out by
Glum, went to Frey’s temple at Eyafjord in Iceland with a
full-grown ox, saying to the god that he had long been his chief
toast and had many gifts from him, and that he had repaid
them well. Now he gave Frey the ox, asking him to drive out
Glum and desiring a token of acceptance of the gift. The ox
bellowed and fell dead, and this was regarded by Thorkel as a
good sign . 31 Some time after, Glum dreamed that a great com-
pany came to see Frey, and it seemed to him that he saw the god
sitting in their midst. Glum asked the company who they
were, and learned that they were his dead kinsmen who were
praying to Frey that Glum should not be driven out. Their
prayer did not prevail, for Frey was answering them shortly and
angrily, and was mindful of Thorkel’s gift. Glum was never
Frey’s good friend after that . 32

Not only were there large images of Frey, smaller ones were
used as amulets. Heid the Volva prophesied to Ingimund
about his settlement in an undiscovered western land. He said
that he would not go, but she declared that he would, and, as a
token, his silver image of Frey would be lost out of his purse


1 1 8


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


and found when he dug a place in that land for his high-seat
pillars. The image was discovered to be missing, and
Ingimund sent two Finns to Iceland to discover it. They found
it, but could not remove it, for it went from one place to an-
other and they could not take it. So Ingimund was forced to
go himself, and when he had set up his pillars, he found
the image. It had belonged to a petty Norse king, and
had been given to Ingimund by king Harald about
872 a.d . 33

Sacred horses were kept in Frey’s temple at Throndhjem,
and a curious story is told of a horse, a half-share of which was
dedicated to Frey by its owner, Hrafnkell, who migrated to
Iceland in the time of Harald. He revered no god more than
Frey and dedicated a temple to him. Hence he was called
c Frey’s priest,’ Freys- go di. He vowed to slay any one who
rode this horse. In order to look for sheep, his shepherd Einar
mounted it, and by its loud neighings this was made known to
Hrafnkell, who slew Einar. The result was a feud between
Einar’s people and Hrafnkell, who was banished. His enemies
cast the horse, whose name was Freyfaxi, into a stream from a
cliff, afterwards known as Freyfaxi’s Cliff. They burned the
temple and robbed the images of their decorations. On hearing
this, Hrafnkell said: c I think it folly to believe in the gods,’
and from that day forward offered no sacrifices. 34 We hear of
another horse with a white mane called Freyfaxi, belonging to
Brand. It was a splendid horse for fighting, and men believed
that Brand put his trust in it and worshipped it: hence he was
known as Faxabrand. 35

The cult of Frey seems to have passed from Sweden, with its
centre at Upsala, to Norway. There was an important temple
of the god at Throndhjem where the people prayed to him for
peace and fruitfulness, and looked for announcements about
future events from him. 36 When King Olaf commanded the
people at Throndhjem in 998 a.d. to break Frey’s image, they
refused on the ground that they had served him long and that


THE VANIR GROUP — FREY 119

he had done well by them, giving them peace and plenty and
revealing the future to them. 37

From Norway Frey’s cult passed to Iceland with the emi-
grants in the ninth century, and there they placed themselves
under his protection and that of Thor. The story of Ingimund
offers an interesting illustration of this, and of the god’s desire
for the spread of his cult, which was strongest in the north of
the island. Many temples of Frey are mentioned in the Sagas,
some of them peculiarly sacred. In V iga-Glums-saga it is told
that Glum harboured outlaws at Frey’s temple at Eyafjord.
This made the god angry: he withdrew his protection from
Glum, and now his luck turned. 38

Not only did groups of men or peoples trace descent from
Frey, calling themselves his kin or his offspring, 39 but individ-
uals regarded themselves as his friends or they were dear to
him. The Gisla-saga tells how no snow lodged on the south
side of Thorgrim’s barrow, in the north-west of Iceland, nor
did it freeze there. So men guessed that this was because Thor-
grim had been so dear to Frey that he would not suffer the snow
to come between them. Or, as Gisli said : c Frey warms his serv-
ant’s grave.’ Before his death it was said of Thorgrim that he
had intended to hold a festival at the beginning of winter, to
greet the winter and to sacrifice to Frey. 40

[Prometheus]

Frey’s high position is seen in his epithets — Veraldar-god,
c god of the world ’; Folkvaldi-god, £ Foremost of the gods.’ 41
His occupancy of Hlidskjalf in Skirnismal and his possession
of the ring Draupnir, elsewhere ascribed to Odin, point to a time
when Odin had not yet taken a higher place than Frey in
Scandinavia.


CHAPTER IX


THE VANIR GROUP — FREYJA

F REYJA or £ the Lady,’ as daughter of Njord and sister of
Frey, was one of the Vanir, and was called Vanabrudr,
£ Bride of the Vanir ’5 Vanadis, ‘ Lady of the Vanir ’j and Vana-
god, £ Vanir goddess.’ 1 Like the other members of the group,
she is reckoned among the Aisir, and is £ the most renowned of
the goddesses ’ and £ most gently born.’ 2 In Heaven she has the
dwelling Folkvang, £ Folk-plain,’ and her hall, great and fair,
is Sessrumnir, £ Rich in seats.’ Here she assigns seats to the
heroes who fall in battle, for half of these she shares with Odin.
Hence she is £ the Possessor of the Slain.’ 3 She drives forth in
a chariot drawn by cats, and in this manner she came to
Balder’s funeral. 4 Her most famous possession is the necklace
Brisinga-men, which Loki stole and Heimdall recovered. 6 She
has also a hawk’s plumage or feather-dress which enables her
to fly, and is sometimes borrowed by Loki. 6 She rides the
boar Hildisvini, £ Battle-swine,’ with golden bristles, which she
desires to pass off as Frey’s boar. In reality it is her lover Ottarr
in that form. 7

Freyja’s husband is Od; hence she is Ods-mser, £ Bride of
Od.’ Their daughter is Hnoss, £ Jewel,’ £ so fair that precious
things are called after her, hnossir According to the Ynglin -
ga-saga she had two daughters, Hross and Gersimi, £ after
whom all things dearest to have are named.’ 8

Freyja is willing to help when men call upon her, especially
in love affairs, and she is thus called £ goddess of love.’ Songs
of love were a delight to her. 9 In the euhemerized account of
Freyja in the Y nglin ga-saga , she is said to have introduced evil
magic, seidr , among the Aisir, its use being already common


THE VANIR GROUP — FREYJA 121

among the Vanir, perhaps a memory of the use of magic in her
cult . 10 From her name noble women had the name of honour
]reyjurd x

Freyja is known only in Norway and mainly in Icelandic
poetry. Hence it has been asserted that she was a creation of
the skalds as a counterpart to Frey. This is unlikely, and she
is one of the few goddesses whose cult is definitely mentioned
in Northern literature. In Oddrunargratr , one of the heroic
poems of the Edda , occurs the following appeal:

‘ So may the holy Powers grant thee help,

Frigg and Freyja and full many gods,

As thou hast saved me from fear and misery.’

And in Hyndluljod Freyja says of Ottarr that he had made her
a horg (a cairn or altar) piled up with stones, which the sacri-
ficial fires had fused into glass, and that it was often reddened
with the blood of animal victims, for Ottarr trusted in the god-
desses . 12 To Freyja, with Thor, Odin, and the Aisir, peasants
of Throndhjem offered toasts at the beginning of winter in their
feasts and sacrifices . 13 In the Halfs-saga she is called upon for
aid. King Alfrek determined to keep that one of his two wives,
Signy and Geirhild, who should brew the best beer. Signy
asked Freyja’s aid, Geirhild that of Odin (Hott, 1 he with the
hat’). He gave her his spittle in place of yeast, so her beer
was the best. For this, she had to give Odin her son Wikar.

If, however, Freyja was an independent goddess, there seems
to have been frequent confusion between her and Frigg, Odin’s
consort, or perhaps she tended to take the place of Frigg.
When she is said to share the slain with Odin, one would natu-
rally suppose that this would have been Frigg’s privilege. In
the Egils-saga it is women whom Freyja receives after death . 14
Both goddesses possess hawk’s plumage, and Loki borrows it
from both . 15 Some have held that the famous Brisinga-men
was originally Frigg’s possession. In later poetry Freyja is
actually called Fjolnir’s (Odin’s) wife, as Frigg was. The


122


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Christian Hjallti Skeggjason was outlawed at the Thing in
Iceland in c. 999, because of his blasphemous verses against
Odin and Freyja:

‘ Ever will I gods blaspheme,

Freyja methinks a bitch does seem,

Freyja a bitch? Aye, let them be
Both dogs together, Odin and she.’ 16

This suggests that she was regarded as Odin’s consort, taking
the place of Frigg. Freyja and Frigg may have been both de-
veloped out of one original goddess, spouse of the old Heaven-
god, to be ultimately confused with each other when the cult of
Odin was increasing in the North.

On the other hand, that Freyja could be held to share the
slain with Odin suggests her lofty position. Her abode is de-
picted as a kind of Valhall, and it might be identified with Vin-
golf, a seat of goddesses and also of the slain. 17 Freyja might
also be regarded as chief of the Valkyries, riding forth to the
strife, as Snorri depicts her — £ wheresoever she rides forth to
the battle, she has half of the slain ’j and, in this light, her fear-
less pouring out of ale for the giant Hrungnir when he invaded
Asgard, would be significant, for the Valkyries poured out
liquor in Valhall for heroes. 18 As chief of the Valkyries she
would have an interest in the slain. If the names of her abodes
have reference to their being abodes of the dead , L Folk-plain ’
and £ Rich in seats,’ then a wider conception of her rule over the
dead might be indicated. The passage in Egils-saga points to
this. Thorgerd, daughter of Egil, who intends to die with her
father, says that she has taken no food and will take none, for
she hopes to feast that night with Freyja, just as heroes hoped
to be Odin’s guests. But there may be a survival in this passage
of an older belief that women, not heroes, went to her abode
at death.

The myths about Freyja are to some extent in keeping with
her position as goddess of love, possibly also of fertility. Some




• -V







.







' T ? v ' : •. ' •


- '?• tic ?? ' \




. * - _




3 ; r i . •

•" ? ' -? .. >V v: . ' '.J . . ; ’ ”



























PLATE XV
Ancient Wagon

A wagon of the early Iron Age found in the moor
of Deibjerg, Jutland, and restored. Such a wagon
may have been used to carry round an image, as in the
Nerthus and Frey cults (pp. 102, 1 15), or to transport
a dead man to his grave-mound, where it was buried
with him for use on the Hel-way or in the Other
World.







THE VANIR GROUP — FREYJA 123

of them suggest her desirableness as a beautiful and voluptuous
goddess. She is coveted by giants — by him who rebuilt the
citadel of the Aisir, by Hrungnir, and by Thrym. When
Thrym sought her as his bride, her indignation was intense, her
anger shook the dwelling of the gods, and her necklace broke
on her heaving bosom. 1 Maddest for men might I be called,
did I travel with thee to Jotunheim.’ 19 These giants, repre-
senting the power of winter, might be regarded as trying to
overcome a goddess of fertility.

Similarly she was forced by four dwarfs to surrender herself
to them ere they would give her Brisinga-men. This is the
subject of a story in the Sorla-thdttr (fourteenth century).
Freyja is here Odin’s mistress. One day, looking into the rock-
dwelling of four dwarfs, she saw them fashioning a wonderful
necklace. Offering to purchase it, she was told that she would
have it only if she yielded herself to the dwarfs. To this she
submitted and became possessor of the famous necklace
Brisinga-men. Loki heard of this and told Odin, who bade him
get the necklace — a difficult task, for no one could enter
Freyja’s abode without her consent. Loki transformed himself
into a fly and sought some opening, but in vain. At last he
crept through a tiny hole in the roof. The inmates of the hall
were asleep, Freyja lying with the clasp of the necklace under
her neck. Transformed now into a flea, Loki bit her cheek.
She woke and turned over on her other side. Then, assuming
his own form, Loki unclasped the necklace, opened the door,
and went with it to Odin. Freyja regained it from Odin only
by consenting to incite two mighty kings, Hedin and Hilde, to
an unending conflict. 20 This story is probably based on an
earlier poem now lost. In the Eddas Freyja is the possessor
of the necklace, and it so distinguishes her that when Thor dis-
guised himself as the goddess, he wore this necklace. On an-
other occasion or in another myth, the necklace, stolen by Loki,
was recovered by Heimdall.

This necklace, ‘ the necklace of the Brisings,’ who must be its


124


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


artificers, or £ of Brising,’ is alluded to as the brosinga mene in
Beowulf , carried off by Hama from Eormanric. Here it forms
part of a hoard . 21 The necklace itself is explained by modern
mythologists as the rainbow, the moon, the morning or evening
star, the red dawn, etc. Some have regarded it as the sun
setting in the sea, and of which Freyja, regarded as the Heaven-
goddess, is thus dispossessed. The word has also been con-
nected with brisingr , £ fire,’ a name still given to bonfires in
Norway — an allusion to its gleaming quality, the jewel which
sparkles like fire . 22 Menglod, £ Necklace-glad,’ whom the hero
Svipdag is compelled to seek by his stepmother, is so called after
this mythic ornament, and is thus held to be a form of Freyja.
Svipdag called up his dead mother Groa from the grave, and
was given by her several charms to guard him in his difficult
quest. He reached the hall of the giants, surrounded by fire,
where Menglod was. The giant Fjolsvid sat before it, and
held parley with Svipdag. In the course of their dialogue much
mythic information is given. At last the giant says that no one
is destined to have Menglod save Svipdag, who now reveals
himself, and is welcomed by her as bridegroom. The evidence
that Menglod is a form of Freyja is slender, and the tale rather
suggests a folk-story than a myth. Attempts to explain the
necklace in terms of natural phenomena are unsatisfactory, and
it seems better to regard it as the reflexion in the divine sphere
of such a precious human possession as a valuable necklace.

Freyja’s lubricity is emphasized in the Eddas. In Loka-
senna Loki attacks her, in common with other goddesses, for
lewdness. She has just repelled his slander of Frigg, when
Loki says:

‘ Be silent, Freyja, well I know thee,

Thou art not free of faults;

All the ALsir and Alfar who now are here
Hast thou in turn made happy.’

Freyja denies this, and, £ evil witch,’ is then charged by Loki
with having been found in her brother’s bed by the Aisir . 23


THE VANIR GROUP — FREYJA 125

When Loki says of Thor, disguised as Freyja, that she (he) has
eaten nothing nor closed an eye for eight nights, so hot is her
desire for the giant’s home, there may be a suggestion of
Freyja’s character. 24 In Hyndluljod Freyja riding on a boar
seeks the wise giantess Hyndla in order to learn from her the
story of her favourite Ottarr’s descent. She wishes Hyndla to
ride with her to Valhall on a wolf. Hyndla knows her to be
Freyja, and says that the boar is her lover Ottarr. After telling
the story of his descent, Hyndla dismisses Freyja with the
caustic words : £ In the night-time like the she-goat Heidrun
thou leapest after the goats.’ She says also:

c To Od didst thou run, ever lusty,

And many have stolen under thy girdle,’

and she frequently calls Ottarr Freyja’s lover. Frey admits
that the boar is Ottarr and compels Hyndla to bring him the
memory-beer, which will help him to recall the genealogy
which she has just related. If Hyndla does not swiftly bring it,
she will raise flames around her and burn her alive. Hyndla
brings the drink, but mingled with the venom of an evil fate.
Freyja says that this malediction will work no ill. Ottarr will
find a delicious drink when she begs the favour of the gods.
Perhaps we may assume that Freyja causes the death of Hyndla,
after having forced her to give the desired information.

Thor is called £ Freyja’s friend ’ in a poem by Eilif Gudrun-
arson, and this may refer to some love affair with her. 25 We
should note also her association with Frey, a priapic god of fer-
tility, and the glossing of her name in Christian times as Venus. 26

Od, Freyja’s husband, was not a deity but £ the man called
Od.’ He £ goes forth into far lands, but Freyja remains behind
in tears, and her tears are red gold. Freyja has many names,
because as she went among strange folk seeking Od, she called
herself by different names — Mardoll, Horn, Gefn, Syr.’ In
this passage Snorri does not explain how Freyja both remains
at home and wanders in search of Od. The account itself has


126


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


given occasion to the most varied mythologizing interpreta-
tions, and, if it is based on natural phenomena, what these are
cannot now be determined. With reference to her weeping,
one of the goddess’s titles is gratjagra god y ‘ goddess beautiful
in tears,’ and gold is called c tears of Freyja .’ 27 In folk-tales
the gift of weeping tears which become pearls is a well-known
incident, and tears of gold are wept by a maiden in an Icelandic
story. 2S Her name Moertholl is a form of Mardoll, and if the
latter means 1 shining over the sea,’ then she might be the Sun-
goddess sinking to rest in the sea, the golden shimmer on the
waters suggesting her tears as gold . 29 Others, like Gering, see
in Freyja the bestower of the fructifying summer rain. She
hovers over the earth in a feather-dress (the clouds) ; hence
she is the goddess beautiful in tears. Her tears change to
gold — the golden corn-seeds . 30 It should be noted that, as
Od leaves Freyja, so Odin leaves Frigg in Saxo’s story —
another suggestion of the oneness of Freyja and Frigg.

To some degree Freyja is a counterpart of her brother Frey.
Both are fair of face. Both are deities of love and that in its
more sensual aspects. Both are associated with the boar on
which they ride or are driven by it. If Nerthus was once of
more importance than her male counterpart Njord, this was
probably true also of Freyja in comparison with Frey. We
have seen that Frey’s name, Ingunar-Frey, means ‘ Frey of
Ingun,’ or c Lord (Husband) of Ingun.’ If Ingun here stands
for Freyja, this would mean that she had once been more
prominent than her consort — an earlier Fertility-goddess,
possibly a form of Mother Earth. Prof. Chadwick has argued
that the name Yngvi was that not only of Frey, but of the
members of the royal house at Upsala . 31 If these were regarded
as representatives of Frey, they would each in turn be looked
on as consorts of the goddess, and Frey himself may have been
originally no more than their eponymous ancestor. These,
however, are highly speculative suggestions.


CHAPTER X


BALDER

T HE references to Balder (ON Baldr) in the Poetic Edda
are comparatively few and occur in six of the poems.
From these we learn the following facts about him. He is son
of Odin and Frigg . 1 According to Grimnismal his heavenly
dwelling is Breidablik, £ Wide-shining,’ which he built for him-
self, a place free from all crimes . 2 He was troubled by evil
dreams: the gods took counsel over this, and Odin rode down
to Hel to consult the dead seeress, raised up by his spells, and,
calling himself Vegtam, forced her to reply to his questions.
She answered first that a place is prepared in Hel for Balder
and that hope is gone from the gods. Hod will be Balder’s
bane, bringing to Hel the hero whom he will deprive of life.
But Balder will be avenged: Rind bears Vali in Vestrsalir,
£ Western Hall,’ to Odin. When one night old, he will fight,
and bring Balder’s slayer to the pyre. £ What maidens are those
who weep for this and toss to the sky the tops of the sails? ’ asked
Odin . 3 This enigmatic question revealed to the seeress who
her questioner really was. Odin says that she is no Volva nor
prophetess: rather is she the mother of three giants (Thursar).
She bids Odin ride home. None will see her again till Loki is
free of his bonds and the Doom of the gods arrives. This story
is the subject of Baldr s Draumar.

Voluspa also refers to the death of Balder. The seeress says:

‘ I saw for Balder, Odin’s son,

The soft-hearted god, destiny set;

Full grown on the fields,

Slender and fair,

The mistletoe stood.


128


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


From this tree was made,

Which seemed so slender,

A deadly shaft, which Hod shot.’

Then follow the lines from Baldrs Draumar about Vali, and
the seeress resumes :

‘ In Fensalir Frigg weeps sore,

For Valhall’s woe,

Would ye know yet more? ’ 4

The Short Volusia in Hyndluljod refers to Balder’s death,
and says that the gods were eleven in number when he bowed
his head on the hill of death. Vali was swift to avenge this,
slaying quickly his brother’s slayer . 5

Skirnismal speaks of the ring Draupnir as that which was
laid on Balder’s pyre. In Vafthrudnismal Odin asks the giant
what words Odin spoke in the ear of Balder on his pyre. In
Lokasenna Loki tells Frigg that he is the cause of Balder’s
death . 6

In these notices we learn that Hod was Balder’s slayer. Only
in Lokasenna is it hinted that Loki was to blame for his death.
The long prose narrative compiled by Snorri from these and
other sources shows that Hod was the unwitting cause of the
slaying, because of Loki’s action. The original myth may thus
have had no place for Loki, who was later introduced into the
story.

Finally, in V oluspa Balder is said to come back to the re-
newed world after the Doom of the gods, and with Hod he
lives in Hropt’s (Odin’s) battle-hall . 7

The Husdrafa of Ulf Uggason (tenth century) describes
pictures painted on the wainscot and roof of a hall in Iceland.
Among these were scenes from Balder’s funeral. Frey rides his
boar, Heimdall his horse ; Odin follows, then the Valkyries and
the ravens. Another scene depicted the giantess Hyrokkin
launching the ship on which the pyre is set, while Odin’s
champions follow the wolf on which she rode . 8 The tenth


BALDER


129

century skalds, Kormak and Vetrlidhi, also refer to the Balder
myth.

We now turn to Snorri’s later prose narrative. Balder the
good is Odin’s second son, and good things are to be said of
him. He is the best god, praised by all. So beautiful and fair is
he that light shines forth from him. A certain herb is so white
that it is called ‘ Balder’s eyelash,’ Baldersbraa. This shows
how fair his hair and body are. He is wisest of the Aisir, most
fair of speech and gracious, yet none may gainsay his judg-
ments. He dwells in Breidablik, where nothing impure can
be found. Nanna, daughter of Nep, is his wife: their son is
Forseti . 9

[Prometheus]

In several chapters Snorri describes Balder’s death and
funeral. He dreamed evil dreams, and the Aisir resolved to
ask safety for him from all kinds of dangers. Frigg took oaths
from fire, water, metals, stones, trees, animals, etc., that none
of these should hurt him. Now it became a sport of the gods to
shoot or hew or beat Balder ; nothing could do him harm.
When Loki saw this, he was displeased and went to Fensalir in
woman’s form to ask Frigg why this was done. Then he learned
that she had taken oaths of all things save a tree-sprout called
mistletoe, growing to the west of Valhall, which had seemed
to her too young to take an oath of. Loki went and pulled up
the mistletoe by the root, and, going to the Thing, spoke to
Hod who was standing outside the ring, because he was blind.
He asked him why he did not shoot at Balder and was told that
he could not see where Balder was and, besides, he was weapon-
less. Loki then put the mistletoe in his hand and bade him be
guided by him and throw the rod at Balder. This he did and
Balder fell dead.

The iLsir looked at each other in silence: none could there
take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was that place. They wept,
but Odin was of all most grieved, knowing the harm that would
befall the Aisir. Frigg then asked who would go down to Hel
and offer her a ransom to release Balder. Hermod, the son of


130


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


Odin, undertook this, and mounting Sleipnir, rode away. He
went for nine nights through dark valleys to the river Gjoll
and on to the Gj oil-bridge, thatched with gold, and guarded by
the maiden Modgud. She asked his name and race and said
that on the previous day Balder and five hundred dead men (his
servants?) had crossed, but the bridge thundered less with
their tread than with his alone. Why did he ride on Hel-way?
To seek out Balder: had she seen him? £ Yes: Balder rode
over the bridge, and Hel-way lies down and to the north.’

Hermod rode on to Hel-gate, over which his horse leaped.
Now he entered the hall, where Balder sat in the high seat.
Next morning he besought Hel to let him go; she would only
release him if all things, quick or dead, wept for him. Balder
now let Hermod out of the hall. Nanna sent to Frigg a kerchief
and to Fulla a gold ring. Hermod rode back to Asgard and
told his tidings.

Meanwhile Balder’s funeral had been celebrated. The .Eisir
brought his corpse to the sea and set it on Hringhorni, greatest
of all ships. They would have launched it and set his pyre upon
it, but it would not stir. A message was sent to Jotunheim to
the giantess Hyrrokin. She came, riding a wolf bridled by a
snake. Leaping off her steed, which Odin bade four berserkers
tend, though they could not hold it till they had felled it, she
pushed the boat so that fire burst from its rollers as it was thrust
into the sea, and earth trembled. Thor, in his rage, would have
broken her head with his hammer, had not the gods calmed
him . 10

The corpse was now laid on the ship. Nanna straightway
died of grief, and was laid with Balder on the pyre, which was
now kindled. Thor hallowed it with his hammer, when before
his feet ran the dwarf Litr, whom Thor kicked into the fire.
Odin was there, with Frigg, the Valkyries, and his ravens;
Frey drove in his chariot with his boar Gullinbursti or Slidrug-
tanni. Heimdall rode Golltop; Freyj a drove her cats. Many
of the Frost-giants and Hill-giants were also present. On the









1 : : '





c


• ",




-










PLATE XVI


The Oseberg Ship

The custom of interring a dead chief or king in a
funeral chamber within a ship, which was then en-
closed in a tumulus, was common in Norway. Such
burial sites were always near the sea, and nine royal
tumuli of this type exist at Borre on the western coast
of the Oslo fjord. At some distance from these, at
Oseberg, another tumulus was opened and was found
to contain a ship, eighty feet long, richly carved, with
a funeral chamber full of all kinds of objects for the
use of the dead. Within the chamber were two
beds and two bodies of women. One of these is be-
lieved to be that of queen Aasa, grandmother of Har-
ald the Fair-haired, the other that of her chief at-
tendant. The date of the tumulus is about the middle
of the ninth century. At some period unknown the
tumulus had been opened and all the objects made of
gold and silver abstracted, and many of the funerary
objects smashed. The ship reconstructed is now pre-
served at Oslo. The illustration shows the elaborate
carving of the wood.

The funeral of Balder points to a different method
of ship-interment, viz., not burial within a tumulus but
cremation (p. 130).

From a photograph, by permission of the Director
of the Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo.




BALDER


131

pyre Odin laid the ring Draupnir, and Balder’s horse was led to
the fire with all his trappings.

When Hermod told his tidings to the .Esir, they sent mes-
sengers all over the world to pray that Balder should be wept
out of Hel. People, living things, earth, stones, trees, metals,
wept — ‘ as thou must have seen that all these things weep
when they come out of the cold into the heat . 5 As the messen-
gers went home, they found a giantess sitting in a cave, Thokk
by name. They begged her to weep for Balder: she refused,
and here Snorri quotes a verse of a lost Eddie poem.

1 With waterless tears will Thokk weep
That Balder ascends the pyre;

Neither in life nor death loved I the karl’s son.

Let Hel hold what she has.’

Thokk was Loki. Snorri then relates the vengeance taken by
the gods on him . 11 He also tells of Balder and Hod in the
renovated world . 12 His narrative is based on poems now lost,
the stanza about Thokk being one of these, on the Eddie poems,
and on the Husdra-pa , already cited.

The Eddas do not tell how Vali took vengeance on Hod, but
this is assumed, and, in Hyndluljod , asserted. Thus Snorri
gives as one of the kennings for Hod, ‘ foe of Vali,’ and for
Vali himself 1 foe and slayer of Hod .’ 13 As we have seen, the
poetic references to Balder’s death do not mention Loki as the
agent who caused Hod’s action. If Hod had merely been
the unwitting slayer, there would have been no reason for seek-
ing an avenger to put him to death. In Snorri’s narrative, where
he acts under Loki’s advice, vengeance is not taken on him, but
on Loki. In the earlier form of the myth, before c. 1000 a.d.,
Hod alone was responsible for Balder’s death.

The story of Balder and Hod is also told by Saxo Gramma-
ticus, Hod being called by him Hotherus, and he is a son of
Hodbrodd, king of Sweden, and fosterling of Gewar, king of
Norway. Hotherus was skilled in all accomplishments, and


132


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


these so pleased Nanna, daughter of Gewar, that she fell madly
in love with him. Balder, Odin’s son, saw Nanna bathing, and
he desired to have her (as Frey did on seeing Gerd), resolving
to slay Hotherus. Hotherus, led astray by a mist when hunt-
ing, came to a lodge where certain virgines silvestres or Wood-
maidens greeted him by name. They told him that by their
guidance and auspices the fortunes of war were mainly deter-
mined. They took part invisibly in battles, and secretly assisted
their favourites to victory, for they could win victory or inflict
defeat as they willed. They told him of Balder’s love for
Nanna, but counselled him not to attack him in war, for he was
a demi-god ( semi-deus), sprung secretly from celestial seed.
Lodge and maidens now vanished, and Hotherus found himself
in the open fields. Hotherus, much amazed, told Gewar of this,
and asked him for Nanna. Gewar said that he would gladly
favour him, but feared Balder’s wrath, as he also had asked for
her. Balder’s body was proof against steel, but, said Gewar,
there was a sword which would cause his death, as well as a
bracelet which had the power of increasing its owner’s wealth.
These were in the possession of Miming, a satyr of the woods.
The way to his abode was full of obstacles, over frozen ground.
Hotherus must harness a car with reindeer and, having reached
the place, pitch his tent so that its shadow would not fall on
Miming’s cave and, by the unusual darkness, prevent his coming
out. Hotherus followed these instructions, and when Miming
emerged from the cave, he aimed a spear at him and laid him
low. Then he bound him and demanded the sword and brace-
let, which Miming now gave to him. Incidents are told of war
with Gelder, king of Saxony, who coveted these treasures, and
of assistance given to Helgi, king of Halogaland, to gain Thora,
daughter of the king of the Finns and Perms.

Meanwhile Balder had sued for Nanna and was bidden by
Gewar to learn her own mind. She would not be moved, and
said that a god could not wed a mortal. Gods were apt to break
their pledges! Hotherus, with Helgi’s aid, joined battle with


BALDER


133

Balder at sea. Odin, Thor, and all the gods fought for Balder.
Thor with his club ( clava ) was carrying all before him, when
Hotherus, clad in an invulnerable coat, cut the club in two, thus
rendering it useless. The gods with Balder took to flight.
Even Saxo is staggered by this, but he says that antiquity
vouches for it.

Soon after, fortune turned and Balder defeated Hotherus,
but was so tormented by dreams in which phantoms took the
form of Nanna that he fell into sickness, and had to be driven
about in a four-wheeled carriage. Hotherus took possession of
Denmark, joining it with Sweden. Balder came to Denmark,
the people there accepting him. Hotherus was again defeated,
retiring to Sweden in despair. In a wild forest he once more
met the Wood-maidens, who had formerly given him an invul-
nerable coat, as we now learn. He told them of his defeats and
upbraided them with breach of faith. They said that though
he had been defeated, he had inflicted as much loss on the enemy
as they had on his forces. Victory would soon be his, if he could
obtain a food of great deliciousness devised to increase Balder’s
strength. Hotherus plucked up courage, and now Balder and
the Danes opposed him in battle until night ended the fight.
During the darkness Hotherus went to spy on the foe, and
learned that three maidens had gone out, carrying Balder’s
secret feast. Running after them, for their footsteps could be
traced in the dew (an elfin trait), he entered their dwelling,
saying that he was a musician, one of the company of Hotherus.
He played to them, entrancing them with his music (another
elfin trait), and at the same time he saw that the venom of three
serpents was dropping from their mouths on Balder’s food, thus
dowering it with magic strength. Out of kindness two of the
maidens would have given him a share of the food, but the
eldest forbade it, saying that Balder would be defrauded if
the strength of his enemy were increased. But these nymphs
( nymphae ) gave him a belt and a girdle which ensured victory.
On his return, he met Balder and plunged his sword into him,


134


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


leaving him half dead. On the night following, Proserpine
(Hel) stood by Balder, and promised that on the morrow he
would have her embraces. In three days he died, and was given
a royal funeral by the Danes, his corpse being laid in a barrow
made by them . 14

Saxo then tells how, in his day, certain men, chief of whom
was one Harald, sought to open the barrow to find treasure, but
were stricken with panic. It split open; water poured from it
and flooded the land; the guardian gods of the place ( land -
vcetter or perhaps the haugbui ) thus terrifying the seekers, but,
as Saxo believes, with a magic and phantasmal flood, not an
actual one. Saxo gives interesting information about places
connected with Balder. A haven, the name of which he does not
mention, recalls the story of Balder’s defeat at sea, perhaps
Balderslee, the traditional name of a village in Schleswig,
though it may be Balsnes, formerly Baldersnes, on the island
of Hitteren in Norway. After conquering Hotherus, Balder
pierced the earth and opened a spring at which his men quenched
their thirst. The traces of this spring at Baldersbrond, a village
near Roskilde, were thought to exist in Saxo’s time. Later tra-
dition said that it was formed by a stroke of the hoof of Balder’s
horse . 15

Saxo next tells how Odin began to enquire regarding venge-
ance for Balder’s death, and gives the story of his affair with
Rinda, which has already been related . 10

Saxo’s narrative both resembles and differs from the Eddie
account of Balder. The protagonists Balder and Hod (Hoth-
erus) are the same, though Hotherus is not one of the Aisir, but
son of a king. As in the earlier Eddie myth, Loki does not
appear, nor is Hotherus blind. Balder is slain by Hod by means
of the mistletoe which grows at Valhall and is sought there by
Loki ( Edda ) ; by means of a magic sword sought by Hotherus
in the far North (Saxo). Balder’s safety is secured by oaths
taken of all things not to harm him {Edda ) ; he is invulnerable,
because of magic food and save for being wounded by Miming’s


BALDER


135


sword (Saxo). In the Eddas he is troubled by dreams. So in
Saxo’s account he is troubled by dreams of Nanna and has a
vision of Hel. The vengeance motif appears in both : Rind has
a son Vali or Bous to Odin, who overcame her by spells.

On the other hand, Hotherus seems to be Saxo’s hero, and
Balder is not presented in a favourable light. Nanna becomes
wife of Hotherus: in the Edda she is wife of Balder. The cause
of the enmity between the two is not given in the Edda: in Saxo,
it is rivalry for Nanna and, later, strife for the possession of
Denmark. In Saxo, too, the gods fight against the hero Hoth-
erus, and, years after, he is slain by Bous, who himself dies of
his wounds. The oath taken from all things to weep Balder out
of Hel and Hermod’s visit to Hel are lacking in Saxo. Balder
is buried, not burned on a pyre — the pyre on a ship is trans-
ferred to Gelder, who was slain in the war, and set by Hotherus
on the corpses of his men, laid on a pyre of ships. The Wood-
maidens and the three nymphae who prepare Balder’s magic
food are not in the Eddie story. Saxo’s narrative is mainly
euhemeristic, save that Balder is a demi-god in the earlier part
at least, and the gods fight for him: the action takes place on
earth, and each protagonist has his army and fleet.

The problems here are: Is Saxo making use of a Norse or of a
native Danish source or sources? Has he changed a myth of
the gods into a saga about heroes? Was there a form of the
Balder story which had no reference to the gods? Why should
Balder be so well spoken of in the Eddas , but regarded un-
favourably by Saxo?

Definite solutions of these problems are hardly possible.
The native Balder saga is maintained by Kauffmann, who thinks
that this saga told of heroes, one of whom, Balder, was a demi-
god, but that, on reaching Iceland, it became a myth of the gods,
modified by Christian influences . 17 Others regard Saxo’s source
as Icelandic, or partly Danish, partly Norse, and think that he
or his source had euhemerized a myth of the gods. Saxo’s nar-
rative seems to indicate two sources. In one of these, mainly


EDDIC MYTHOLOGY


136

mythical, the quarrel between Balder and Hotherus is about
Nanna. The gods intervene, yet Balder is put to flight, this
narrative probably ending with his death and burning on a
pyre — this being transferred to king Gelder. In the other,
completely euhemerized, there are no gods: Balder and Hoth-
erus are mortals, and the quarrel is about the possession of Den-
mark . 18 Not impossibly Saxo’s narrative may be based on a
form of the Balder myth of earlier date than the Eddie . 19

The references in V olus-pa and in Snorri (or his source) to
the mistletoe by which Balder was slain, do not seem to have
been written by men familiar with this plant, which is described
as a tree, not a parasitic plant on a tree. In Saxo, Balder is slain
with a magic sword. No name is given to it, as was usual with
magic swords, but in other documents we hear of a sword called
Mistelteinn. Thus in the Hromundar-saga Grei'pssonar Hro-
mund possesses the sword Mistelteinn which he took from a
berserker or his ghost out of a hill. Two magicians, Bildr and
Voli (Balder and Vali), oppose him. Bildr is slain. Voli hurls
Hromund’s sword out of his hand, wounds him, but is himself
slain. Hromund loved Svanhit: Bildr and Voli would not per-
mit him to be her bride. The story thus bears some resem-
blance to Saxo’s narrative of Hotherus, Balder, and Bous
(Vali ). 20 In composite words teinn is 1 sword,’ as in Lsevateinn,
the name of the sword by which alone Vithofnir could be killed,
as Balder could be slain only by Miming’s sword . 21 The sword-
name might easily be mistaken for that of the plant, which
would then be supposed to be the instrument of Balder’s
death. 2 "

The meaning of the Balder myth has been sought in many
directions, and German and Scandinavian scholars have sug-
gested numerous interpretations of it, evolving many new
myths in the process. The myth, like others existing in com-
parative isolation, must be more or less of a sealed book.
Bugge’s hypothesis that an earlier Balder myth was recon-
structed with stress laid on the fundamental moral elements of


BALDER


137

life, as a result of the influence of English and Irish Christianity
on the heathen Norsemen in the West, is worked out in great
detail . 23 Balder is identified with Christ ; all the stress is laid
on his death. While the hypothesis is ingenious, the elements
of the new myth taken over from Christian sources — biblical,
theological, legendary — are too numerous and too various for
the theory to be convincing. One would also have thought that
a Balder restored from Hel and death would have formed part
of a myth due to Christian ideas, as our Lord’s Resurrection and
conquest of death and Hades had such a large place in Christian
thought. Miss Phillpotts, who sees in many of the Eddie poems
the words of folk-drama, and considers that a lost poem in
dialogue form about Balder’s death constituted a folk-play
representing the slaying of a god, would like to believe that
Balder rose again, or that the representation of his funeral and
the general weeping would have effect in inducing him to re-
turn . 24 But if one thing is clearer than another in the Eddie
references to Balder, it is that he does not return and cannot re-
turn. Only after the Doom of the gods does he appear in the
renewed world.

The name of Balder, whether god or hero, is thought to
occur in the Merseburg charm which tells how

c Phol and Wodan rode to the wood,

Balder’s colt there wrenched its foot.’