Topic: Japanese Mythology

[Prometheus]

In Yoshino, famous for its cherry-blossoms, there stood a
beautiful cherry-tree which bore flowers of “ eightfold petals,”
and was called therefore Lady Yaye-zakura (“ the eight-pet-
alled cherry ”). Nearby lived a prince, Susuki (Miscanthus),
young and valiant, and he fell in love with Lady Yaye-zakura
who was in the full glory of her bloom. The lady resisted for
a time young Susuki’s love, but when her petals began to fall
she submitted to her lover and permitted Susuki to embrace the
petals among his green leaves.

Now an Ume (Japanese plum-tree) was also in love with
Yaye-zakura and he became very jealous of his more successful
rival. He determined to be revenged, and persuaded his fel-
low trees that they were all in disgrace because the most beauti-
ful of the trees had fallen in love with a mere grass. All the
trees assembled under the banner of the plum-tree and pre-
pared to give battle to the grass-folk.

The grasses rallied to the defence of Susuki and his lady, and
a battle ensued as fierce as any of the battles fought by men.
Victory seemed more than once to incline to the grasses j but


348 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

when the famous general Kusu-no-ki (camphor-tree) came to
the rescue of the trees and set fire to the grasses the battle was
decided in favour of the trees. Prince Susuki died on the field
and so did many of his followers. The Lady Yaye-zakura, in
her sorrow, shaved her hair and put on the robes of a nun.
Hence she is known by the name Sumi-zome-zakura (“ cherry-
tree in black robes ”). 9

IV. THE FLORAL CALENDAR

Plants and flowers are, of course, associated with the seasons
in which they bloom, and are conspicuous in the festivals that
accompany each season. There is a very well known “ Floral
Calendar ” in which the places famous for each flower in turn
are named, and poems and stories concerning them are related.
The symbolism of the flowers is derived chiefly from their re-
spective characteristics and from the associations of the seasons,
and the stories to a large extent find their source in poetic
figures or in mythical narratives, both native and foreign.
Among the foreign influences the greatest by far is that of
Chinese poetry. 10

In the “ Floral Calendar ” the seasons used to be arranged
according to the months of the old lunar calendar} and the dis-
location caused by the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in
1873 has been adjusted in various ingenious ways. We shall
give the stories of the “ Floral Calendar ” as they are told to-
day in Tokyo.

The plants for the New Year’s days (from January 1st to the
7th, or to the 15th) are the pine, the bamboo and the plum-
blossom. The pine, by its evergreen needles, represents pros-
perity} the bamboo, the virtue of straightforwardness. The
plum-blossom is chosen because it is the first of all flowers to
bloom. We have read of the genius of the pinej that of the
plum-tree is a Chinese conception, Rafu-sen, “ the Fairy of the


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PLATES XLI, XLII, XLIII, XLIV
The Festivals of the Months

New Year’s Day. The entrances of the house on
the left side are decorated with the regular sym-
bols of New Year’s Day, pine and bamboo. Two
men wearing broad toga-like robes are the Manzai
dancers, a regular feature of the occasion. Boys are
playing with bows and arrows, while girls inside the
enclosure on the right side are playing hago-ita> a kind
of battledore and shuttlecock. See p. 348.

The Japanese May Day, the day for boys. Dolls
representing legendary heroes are set forth in the house
in the centre, and miniature weapons are placed out-
side. In one of the flags there is the figure of Shoki,
the devil-hunter (See p. 285) while a doll on the
top of another flag pole represents Shojo, the mythical
orang-outang-like being. See p. 273. The festival
was observed on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month,
now on May 5th. See p. 349.

The two pictures are taken from a series of the
festivals of the twelve months drawn on a pair of
screens.

By Itcho (1652—1724), who adopted his art of
the classical school to genre paintings. In possession
of Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Tortoise and Crane, the Symbols of
Longevity and Prosperity

Note that these animals represented for emblematic
purposes are combined with the plants symbolizing the
same qualities. See pp. 348—349, 3 6 3 — 3 7 0.

By Ganko, an artist of the Kano school. In pos-
session of Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.






STORIES OF PLANTS AND FLOWERS 349

Floating Veil,” who appears at night among its blossoms and
scatters abroad their perfume. The animal associate of the pine
is the crane, symbolic of longevity ; that of the bamboo is the
sparrow, which dances among its twigs ; and the companion of
the plum-blossom is the nightingale. 11 Other flowers of early
spring are the narcissus, symbolic of purity 5 the adonis (Japa-
nese fukujuso\ which represents the fertility of life even be-
neath the snow, and is believed to bring good fortune and
health ; and the yuzuri-ha (Daphniphyllum macropodum), the
name of which suggests endless continuity.

The spring is heralded by the willowj its pendant branches
suggest gracefulness and its light green leaves a fresh life. The
willow-leaves, together with the blossoms of the cherry and of
other trees, make up the brocade of spring, woven by the hands
of the Lady of Mount Sano, the genius of spring. The cherry-
blossoms are made to bloom by the Lady-who-makes-the-trees-
bloom, of whom we have heard already. After the cherry, the
peach, both in its flowers and its fruit, is held to be endowed
with power against the plague. The peach-blossoms are the
flowers chiefly associated with the girls’ doll-day, celebrated on
March 3rd, and represent fecundity. The succession of spring
flowers is concluded by the azalia with which the people deco-
rate a little shrine erected to the baby Buddha on his birthday,
now celebrated on April 8th, but properly about one month
later.

Blooming almost at the same time as the azalia, but regarded
as the heralds of the coming summer are the wistaria, the globe
flower (Kerria), and the tree-peony. The wistaria is the sym-
bol of brightness but also of transitoriness: one of the stories
about it we have told. The iris is best known by kakitsubata ,
one of its numerous varieties. It is associated in decorative
painting with yatsu-hashi (“ the eight-planked bridge ”), which
is mentioned in one of Narihira’s love stories. Another variety,
shobu , 12 is the flower of the boys’ doll-festival, celebrated on


350 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

May 5th ; it is believed to protect against evil spirits. For that
purpose its leaves are hung from the eaves of every house, and
put also in bath-water. The practice originated in China. The
globe-flower, (Japanese yamabuki ) is admired because of its
bright yellow colour. The branches of the yamabuki - bush
which bend tenderly downward are associated, in poetry and
painting, with the little streams, beside which they often grow.
The tree-peony is symbolic of enchanting beauty. A simi-
lar meaning is attributed to fuyo (Hibiscus mutabilis) and
to the hydrangea; the former symbolizes a beautiful but
unhappy woman, the latter a woman who is fascinating and
fickle.

The flower of summer most often mentioned in classical
poetry is the blossom of a kind of orange tree, tachlbana (Citrus
nobilis), the tiny flowers of which are very fragrant. The
legend declares that, by the request of the sovereign, it was
brought to Japan by a noble from Tokoyo-no-kuni, or the Eter-
nal Land, a southern island where the trees are always green.
The fragrance of the flower is associated with the song of
the cuckoo. More popular are the convolvulus, or morning-
glory, and the pale flower of the bottle-gourd, or evening-glory.
The morning-glory is associated with Korea, perhaps because its
other name is “ Chosen,” or “ Morning-calm,” which is also
the Japanese name for Korea. The reader will remember the
tale in Chapter V about the evening-glory, taken from the love
adventures of Prince Genji, and the lyric drama founded upon
it. The friend of the moon in summer is the evening primrose;
its Japanese name is tsukimiso , or “the grass that looks at the
moon.” The cat-tail and similar plants are likened to the frogs’
spears, the Tengu’s nose, etc., and amusing pictures of these
grasses and animals are common in Japanese art, though there
are no special stories about them.

But the most real flower of summer is the lotus-flower, first
introduced from India with Buddhism, and always associated


STORIES OF PLANTS AND FLOWERS 351

with the Buddhist ideal of purity and perfection. It is symbolic
of purity, because the plant grows out of muddy water, and yet
neither stalk nor leaf nor flower is defiled by any stain. The
lotus-flower embodies the ideal of perfection, because its fruit
is ripe when the flower blooms, symbolizing the oneness of
Buddhist instruction and enlightenment. The Buddhist para-
dise is said to possess a pond filled with ambrosia, wherein the
lotus grows and blooms in various colours and with heavenly
fragrance. Therefore in every Buddhist temple-ground there
is a lotus pond. Stories are also current that lotus-flowers have
grown out of the graves of pious Buddhists. The lotus-flower
is therefore the emblem of Buddhism and it is widely used in
the decoration of Buddhist temple-buildings and in Buddhist
paintings. Buddhas and Buddhist saints are shown seated on a
dais-like lotus-fruit with petals. The soul of the dying Bud-
dhist is wafted upward on it, and in cemeteries the grave-stone
often rests on a carved lotus.

The coming of autumn is marked by the appearance of the
“seven grasses” which are: — kikyo (Platycodon grandi-
florum), a kind of blue-bell; ominameshi } the “woman-
flower,” already spoken of; fuji-bakama (Eupatorium sinen-
sis), the “wistaria skirt”; waremoko , a flower-like little
cat-tail; karukaya; susuki or obana> or Miscanthus, above spoken
of; and hagi (Lespedeza bicolor), a bush plant. These are al-
ways associated with singing insects, and the people go to the
fields to admire these charming wild flowers and at the same
time to listen to the plaintive music of the insect musicians. 13
The Miscanthus is the flower for the festival of the full moon
in the ninth lunar month, when puddings are offered to
O-Tsuki-sama or “ Mr. Moon.”

In October and November the chrysanthemum and the
maple rule. The white and yellow of the wild chrysanthemum
bring blessings from the fountain of youth where Kiku-Jido,
“ the Chrysanthemum Boy,” resides. Its petals and leaves are


352 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

dipped into sake - beer which confers on mankind the blessings
of health and longevity.

The variegated and domesticated flowers of the chrysanthe-
mum are named after various poetic figures and legendary
characters. The tale of “ The Chrysanthemum Boy’s Foun-
tain ” and of the stream that flows out of it furnishes the mo-
tive for a feast called the “ Feast of the Winding Stream.” A
winding stream is made in a spacious garden filled with chrys-
anthemums. Men and women who know how to make verses
sit scattered along the banks of the stream. Tiny wooden cups,
red-lacquered and flat in shape, are set afloat at the fountain-
head and come drifting down the stream. In each of them
there is a piece of paper on which a poetical subject is written.
Each of the persons who sit upon the bank takes one of the
cups from the stream, drinks a cup of sake y and composes
a poem on the theme he has drawn. The feast is a rhyming
competition and at the same time symbolizes a communion in
the ambrosia of the chrysanthemum fountain of eternal
youth.

The maple-leaves, though they are not flowers, are regarded
as akin to flowers. In poetry and painting the crimson of the
maple is associated with the melancholy whining of the deer,
because the animal is heard at the time when the leaves begin to
turn crimson. Sometimes the maple is also allied in poetry with
the bright moonlight of an autumn evening} there is, for in-
stance, a poem in Kokin-shu , an anthology of the ninth century,
which says:

“The frosty moonlight cold and white
Shines so clear, that we may see
Each maple-leaf float from its tree.

And weave a perfect tapestry
In silence of the Autumn night.” 14

The poem on the katsura-tr&t in the moon, already referred
to, also links the moon and the maple tree in the artist’s imagi-


STORIES OF PLANTS AND FLOWERS 353

nation, but that association is far less popular than that of the
maple with the deer.

This closes the “ Floral Calendar ” of the year. Several
berries which redden in the winter bridge over the gap between
the autumn and the coming spring.

While we are occupied with tales about animals and plants
we ought to say something concerning Japanese heraldry.
Every Japanese family, however lowly it may be, has its family
crest. The wide use of crests had its origin in the designs
painted on flags and other articles in military use, and dates
from the age of feudal warfare which lasted from the four-
teenth to the sixteenth century. The chrysanthemum, which is
the crest of the Imperial family, is said to have been in use as
early as the ninth century ; and the butterfly of the Tairas and
the sasa-rindo , the bamboo-leaves with flowers, of the Mina-
motos, were probably first adopted in the twelfth century.

It is a significant fact that Japanese heraldry makes little use
of animals but much of flowers. The flowers are convention-
alized in simple outlines, and complicated designs such as we
find in European coats-of-arms are extremely rare. There are
few tales to account for the choice of particular crests ; one fam-
ily, however, which displays the cross section of a cucumber,
asserts that its members were originally worshippers of a certain
deity, the genius of the cucumber, who took them under his pro-
tection when they agreed not to eat the fruit of the cucumber


vine.


CHAPTER IX


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR AND
SATIRE

I. THE ADAPTATION OF STORIES TO DIDACTIC

PURPOSES

A LMOST any story can be turned to didactic ends by the
skilful fabulist, but animal stories are better suited than
others to that purpose. In Japan it is most often the tale of the
grateful animal that is so used, for Japanese ethics have always
laid especial emphasis on the virtue of gratitude. No doubt
many stories of that type were originally invented to convey
moral lessons, the wit or shrewdness of the animals contrasted
with the folly or stupidity of mankind, and the human being is
discomfited because he allows his reason and his morality to be
overcome by passion or appetite — most frequently by the sin
of greed, as exemplified, for instance, by the wicked woman in
the story of “ The Tongue-cut Sparrow,” and by the man who
dug for treasure at the instance of a revengeful fox.

A great many folk-tales were adapted to moral or religious
purposes by the Buddhist priests. They were especially fond
of using romantic stories, such as those of Komachi or of Prince
Gen ji, in order to teach the fleeting character of physical beauty
and the sad karma of romantic love. In like manner they
found means to depict the torments caused by hatred, anger,
arrogance, and similar passions in stories of the Tengu who
were the re-incarnations of defeated warriors, or of the unhappy
demon who could not satiate himself with revenge though he


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 355

vented his animosity against one generation after another of his
enemy’s descendants. 1

One of the stories that was clearly invented to teach a moral
lesson is that of “ The Hunter and the Little Monkeys.” There
was once a hunter who shot a monkey. He brought it home
and hung it up from the ceiling in front of the fire-place. In
the night he was awakened from sleep by the noise of little pat-
tering feet. He sat up in bed, and looked about him. He saw
by the light of the dying fire a number of little monkeys who
warmed themselves at the fire-place, and then one after another
tried to warm the cold body of the dead monkey in their em-
brace. They were, as he understood, the children of the dead
monkey, and his heart was so deeply moved with compassion
that he never again went hunting, but sought another means of
livelihood.

A warning against laziness is found in the story of Chin-chin
Ko-bakama , or “ The Little Fairies of the Tooth-picks.” 2
There was once a lady who did almost nothing for herself but
left everything to her servants. She had a curious, lazy habit
of hiding all the tooth-picks she used between the mattings on
the floor. One night, when she was sleeping alone, she heard a
noise close to her pillow and saw many little men clad in kami-
shimo (a sort of square-shouldered garment with a broad skirt,
hakama ) who danced and sang about her bed. Her sleep was
disturbed in this way for several nights in succession. When
her husband came home she told him how she had been an-
noyed. Accordingly he kept watch that night, and when the
little fairies appeared he drew his sword. At once they fell
down lifeless, and, behold, they were the old toothpicks that
the woman had hidden away.

A didactic tale of higher meaning is the rather familiar story
of “ The Blind Men who met with an Elephant ”j it is intended
to teach the foolishness of sectarian strife and the danger of tak-
ing a half-truth for the whole. The story is of Indian origin


356 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

and is frequently used by Buddhist teachers. Several blind
men once fell to discussing what an elephant was like. They
could not agree, and determined to test the accuracy of their
respective conceptions by a first-hand examination of a real ele-
phant. They had themselves led up to an elephant, and each
man put forth his hands to feel the animal. The first man got
hold of one of the beast’s huge legs and said that an elephant
was like the stem of a giant tree; another felt the trunk and he
said that the elephant was much like a snake; the third man
climbed up on the back of the elephant and he found the ani-
mal to be like a little hill; the fourth took hold of the tail and
he insisted that the elephant was like a hossu , a duster made of
hair. The experience of the blind men teaches us that the great
truths of cosmic existence can never be grasped by those who
approach them from a single point of view.

[Prometheus]

II. THE STORY OF BONTENKOKU

In some cases didactic purpose is combined with a very florid
flight of fancy. Such a story is that of “ Bontenkoku, or the
Realm of Brahma,” which dates probably from the sixteenth
century. It is one of the most elaborate of Japanese fairy-
tales.

Once upon a time there was a young prince of high rank in
the Imperial court. After the death of his parents, the prince
dedicated his music to the spiritual welfare of the dead 3 by
playing on a famous flute which had been handed down in his
family. He passed seven days in this way; on the eighth, as
he sat playing his flute, a bank of iridescent purple clouds ap-
peared in the sky. The clouds approached nearer, and therein
he saw a celestial being who bore himself with dignity, seated
in a golden chariot and attended by beautiful angelic figures.
This resplendent being said to the prince: “ I am Brahma, the
Lord of the highest Heaven. The melody of thy flute has


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 357

thrilled my whole realm and we approve thy filial piety and
thy religious devotion. I desire that thou shouldst marry my
only daughter j if thou consentest, thou mayst expect her this
evening when the moon rises a little before midnight.”

The prince could hardly believe the reality of the vision, yet
when evening came he arranged everything for the reception of
his heavenly bride, and sat down to play on his flute. Suddenly
in the sky now illuminated by the moon, he saw the bank of
purple clouds coming down from on high. The air was filled
with delicious perfume and among the clouds sat a wondrous
fairy princess. The marriage ceremony was performed to the
accompaniment of mysterious heavenly music. The miraculous
marriage soon became known, and such was the seraphic beauty
of the bride that many men desired her. The emperor himself
was envious of the prince’s good luck, and determined to get
rid of the young man and take the fairy princess for himself.
Accordingly he commanded the prince to accomplish various
impossible things. One day he said: u Since thou art son-in-
law to the heavenly lord thou canst surely show me the dance
of the heavenly peacock with a musical accompaniment by the
heavenly nightingale (kalivinka). If thou do it not, thou shalt
be driven from this country in disgrace.” The prince was much
troubled at this command and consulted his fairy wife concern-
ing it. It was an easy matter for the daughter of Brahma to
summon those celestial birds, and they came down to earth at
her call. They were despatched to Miyako where they de-
lighted the Imperial court with the beauty of their dancing and
their music.

Then the emperor ordered the prince to bring him the daugh-
ter of the ogre chief, one of Brahma’s retainers. The fairy wife
had no trouble in calling the girl to the Imperial palace, and she
amused and entertained the court with her many coloured robes
and her curious dancing. Then the emperor demanded to
have the Thunderers brought before him. They came at once


vin — 24


358 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

when the princess summoned them. Their roar was so terrible
that the emperor begged them to stop, but they would obey no
one but the prince, the husband of the celestial lady.

Not yet discouraged, the emperor said to the prince: “ I pre-
sume that thou canst obtain the signature of thy father-in-law
together with his heavenly seal. Get it for me or I shall not
permit thee to stay in my country.” There was nothing for the
prince to do but to go himself to the highest Heaven and ask
his father-in-law for his sign-manual and his seal. The fairy
provided her husband with a miraculous horse which would bear
him up to Heaven. When he reached Brahma’s palace, he was
received most hospitably by his father-in-law and entertained
sumptuously. While the prince was eating the celestial rice
served to him, his attention was attracted by a haggard and hun-
gry creature of a repulsive aspect which was confined in the next
room. The monster asked the prince to give him a mouthful
of rice, and the compassionate prince did so. No sooner had
the creature eaten the rice than he broke his fetters, burst from
his cell and flew away into the sky.

The startled prince inquired about the escaped prisoner and
learned that he was the devil king of the south sea, who had
tried to get possession of Brahma’s daughter and had therefore
been put in fetters and left to starve. But now, since the celes-
tial rice endowed anyone who ate it with miraculous powers, the
devil had resumed his former strength, and it was a question
whether he could be subdued again even by Brahma’s warriors.
The whole affair was most unfortunate, but there seemed now
to be no help for it, and so Brahma gave the prince the divine
signature and the seal. He hurried back to his terrestrial home
only to find that the devil king had already carried away his
dear fairy wife. The distressed husband prayed continually in
tears to Kwannon, the goddess of mercy, that his wife might
be restored to him. One night as he was praying in Kwannon’s
temple, the goddess appeared in a vision and told him how to


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 359

find the place where his wife was confined. Following the god-
dess’s instruction, the prince took ship and sailed southward.

After sailing thousands and thousands of leagues, his boat
came ashore on a rugged beach. The prince landed and began
to play upon his flute. Certain dark-skinned devils were at-
tracted by the sound, and they found his music so charming that
they told him where the captive princess was. The prince went
thither, and, when he came to the palace, he let his wife know
of his presence by means of his flute, to which she replied by
playing in harmony with him on her own flute. The devil king
had been called to another place and had gone thither in his
chariot which could travel three thousand leagues a day. The
guards who were in charge of the princess were so much
charmed by the music of the flutes that they offered no opposi-
tion when the prince put his wife in a chariot which the devil
king had left behind and took her away. This chariot, how-
ever, could travel only two thousand leagues a day.

When the guards awoke from their enchanted slumber and
saw that the princess was gone they beat signal drums that
sounded throughout all the realm of the devils. The devil
king, hearing the drums, came back in a hurry, learned what
had taken place, and started at once in pursuit. His chariot was
soon able to overtake the other and he would surely have caught
them and wreaked his fury on them, if the heavenly birds had
not appeared upon the scene and driven the devils down to the
bottom of the subterranean world. So the prince and princess
were saved and came safely to their home.

It is said that this prince and princess are the god and goddess
enshrined at Ama-no-Hashidate, and that they protect mankind
from the malice of the devils.


360


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY


III. HUMOUR AND SATIRE

In most of the didactic stories, the points are emphasized by
exaggerating the results either of human wickedness or foolish-
ness. These exaggerations are often humorous or satirical,
and it is often hard to tell where the didactic tale passes over
into mere humour or satire. The story of the fallen S'ennin of
Kume is more humorous than seriously didactic, especially
when we learn that the Sennin married the woman who caused
him to lose his Sennin power. In the story of Kaguya-hime,
the stratagems and contrivances invented by the lady’s suitors to
get or to forge the rare things that the Moon-fairy required as
the condition of her consent to the marriage, are distinctly
amusing.

The humorous and satirical motives that are found in so
many legends and folk-tales were freely used by the writers of
the farces known as Kyogen, which are played between the No
dramas. Let us give a few instances ; the farce called Zazen or
“ Abstraction ” 4 has this plot:

A man wished to visit his mistress but, in order to do so, he
had to deceive his jealous wife. He told her that he was going
to sit for a day and a night in “ Zazen,” a tranquil meditative
state, and that during this time no one, not even she herself,
should enter his room. But because he was afraid that his wife
would come into his room after all, he ordered his servant to
sit in his place and cover himself completely with a large piece
of cloth. Then he departed to his mistress, confident that he
had prepared for every emergency. But his wife was too sus-
picious to keep away from the room for so long a time. She
opened the door, therefore, and saw a man sitting with covered
head. She spoke to him but as he gave her no answer, she
pulled off the cloth and found the servant sitting there instead
of her husband. She sent the man away and took his place,


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 361

covering herself with the cloth as the servant had done. When,
next morning, the husband came back from his mistress, he
never suspected what had happened in his absence and told the
supposed servant everything that he had done with his mistress.
When he had committed himself sufficiently the wife threw off
the cloth, to the dismay of the unfaithful husband.

Another Kyogen is that called “ The Three Deformed
Ones.” A rich man, who was extremely charitable, announced
that any man who was deformed or had lost his sight or hearing
might come to his house, where he would feed and keep him as
long as he lived. Now a vagabond who had gambled away all
his money heard of the offer, and, pretending that he was blind,
came to claim the rich man’s charity. He was hospitably wel-
comed. The next man to present himself was a friend of the
first impostor. He pretended to be deaf, and the third was an
equally spurious cripple. The charitable man received them all
gladly and entertained them well. One day he had occasion to
go from home and he entrusted to the three deformed men the
care of the magazines where his wine, silk and other goods were
deposited. When he had gone, the three men put off their dis-
guises, helped themselves to the wine and had a merry banquet
with singing and dancing. They were in such spirits that they
quite forgot that their benefactor was likely to return at any
moment. In the midst of their sport he appeared; he found
his deaf protege singing, the cripple dancing, and the blind man
watching the dance and clapping his hands in time with the
steps. When the three impostors saw their protector standing
before them, each of them tried hurriedly to resume his respec-
tive disguise, but it was too late and they were all driven from
the house.

A third farce is called “ The Aunt’s Wine.” A dissipated
young man knew that his aunt had a quantity of good sake - beer
and asked her to give him a cup of it. She would not consent,
for she knew that, with him, one cup meant an infinite succession


362 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

of cups. When the young man found that he could not get his
way by persuasion he determined to get it by frightening his
good aunt. So he got a devil-mask and appeared in that dis-
guise. The terrified old lady begged the supposed devil to take
all her provisions if he would only spare her life. The young
fellow began to drink under his mask and as he grew more and
more intoxicated, it became too troublesome for him to slip the
mask aside while he drank. Accordingly he put his mask on
one of his ears, turning that side of his person toward his aunt,
and drank by putting the cup to the side of his mouth which was
turned away from her. His aunt became suspicious, made in-
vestigation and detected the deceit. She lost no time in driving
the drunken nephew out of the house.

IV. AN AGE OF DISCONTENT AND SATIRE

There was one period in particular when satire was very prev-
alent in Japanese literature. It covers the last part of the
eighteenth and the early years of the nineteenth century. At
that time the government undertook to censor literary produc-
tions and to enforce various irritating sumptuary regulations.
The stories and novels of the time are obviously and obtrusively
moral and have little literary value. A reaction soon took
place, yet there was for a long time too little freedom of expres-
sion. Many a writer took refuge in hiding a satirical purpose
beneath a pretended seriousness, or in disguised sarcasms against
the regime. It is only in work of this kind that any vigour or
originality displayed itself. The usual productions showed all
the lifelessness and tediousness of a conventionalized and arti-
ficial literature. Among the imaginative works of this period,
the most popular were two books of imaginary journeys by
Bakin, the most voluminous writer of Japan. They were the
Wa-So-Byoye or the “ Wanderings ” of the Japanese Chuang-
Chu, — Chuang being the Chinese Taoist who dreamt that he


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 363

had become a butterfly, and doubted whether he himself had
become a butterfly or a butterfly had become Chuang; and
Musd-Bydye , or “ The Dream-Vision-man.” 5

The Japanese Chuang-Chu was a resident of Nagasaki. He
was once fishing from a boat when a storm blew it far from
shore and he drifted over the sea without knowing at all where
he was. The first land he reached was the Land of Immortality
where there was neither illness nor death. The people there
were all weary of life and prayed continually to the god of Death
to deprive them of life or at least of health, but all in vain.
Wa-So himself, after he had lived there for a time, found him-
self, too, wishing to die, since death was the only thing that was
wanting there. He attempted suicide by jumping from a high
cliff, but his body fell to earth so softly that he was quite unin-
jured. Then he tried to drown himself, but he floated ob-
stinately on the surface of the water. His only escape was to
migrate to another realm, which he finally succeeded in doing
on the back of a crane.

The land to which the crane bore him was the Land of
Opulence. There the people desired poverty so earnestly that
the god they worshipped was Poverty and the deity they
dreaded was Wealth. Thence the crane carried Wa-So to the
Land of Vanity, then to the Land of Antiquities, the country of
those who would never consent to any change, then to the Land
of Wantonness, and finally to the Land of Giants. One of the
giants picked Wa-So up to examine him, and when he dropped
him again Wa-So found himself at home in Nagasaki. Under
the pretence of describing the singular customs of the inhabit-
ants of these topsy-turvy countries, Bakin found it possible to
depict with no little satirical humour many of the peculiarities
of the social life of his time.

In a continuation of this book Wa-So becomes weary of his
humdrum life at home and longs to go a-wandering again. He
puts out to sea, and this time a tortoise appears to carry him to


364 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

fresh adventures. The first place to which the tortoise brings
him is the Land of Purity, where he is annoyed by the finicky
neatness and cleanliness of the people. He escapes and travels
by the tortoise-back route to the Land of the Long-legged and
the Long-armed. These strange folk had never thought of
diminishing their respective deformities by means of intermar-
riage, but Wa-So induced them to do so. Before he had an
opportunity to observe the result of this expedient, Wa-So had
to journey through mountain-passes and jungles to the Land
of the Miser; and then over wide, tedious prairies to the Land
of the Dauntless. Other regions he visited were the Land of
Gold and Jewels and the Land of the Long-haired and the
Long-eared Barbarians whose life was not much higher than
that of the beasts. At last he came to the Island of Women. 6
Wa-So was eagerly welcomed by the female inhabitants of this
island who were almost mad at the idea of seeing and embracing
a male being. Wa-So became the guest of honour at the court
of the queen, but found his position really that of a prisoner
and tried to flee. He awoke to find that his adventures were
nothing but a dream.

Muso-Byoye, “ The Dream-Vision-man,” was conducted on
his travels by Urashima, the ancient hero who became the bride-
groom of the Dragon Princess. Urashima gave Muso his
bamboo fishing-rod and line, and Muso made a kite from them
on which he was able to fly through the air. The first place he
visited was the Land of the Children, where the Father, the
Mother and the Nurse were deities representd by images, and
where the people had nothing to do but play, quarrel and cry.
The kite next carried Muso to the Land of Concupiscence.
While Muso stood amazed at the shameless lust of the people
his kite sailed away and he was quite at a loss how to proceed
on his journey. Then he met Urashima, who was living as a
hermit among the lustful people and who gave Muso a boat in
which he sailed to the Land of Perpetual Drinking. Muso was


DIDACTIC STORIES, HUMOUR, SATIRE 365

very ready to join in the drinking party, but in the midst of it
he was caught by a gigantic eagle which carried him off to the
Land of Greed. There he found his kite again and on it he
travelled to the Land of Liars, to the Land of Never-satisfied
Passions, and finally to the Land of Delight. The king of that
realm was Urashima again, and he, when Muso had satiated
himself with the pleasures of this happy land, sent the wan-
derer back to his home in Japan.



APPENDIX





JAPANESE

FOLK-LORE IN FOLK-SONGS

J APAN has a rich stock of folk-songs, from very ancient ones re-
corded in the eighth century to those that were only collected after
the breaking down of the feudal barriers in the last century. Since
they are the products of the sentiment and imagination of the common
people they contain frequent allusions to popular folk-tales, but the lan-
guage is often so obscure that we can only guess to what legends refer-
ence is made. Moreover, plays upon words and riddles are very fre-
quent; the result is that very few of the songs can be put into intelligible
English.

Some popular songs are lyrical improvisations, but the majority are
traditional expressions of popular feeling on various occasions of social
or communal festivity. Such are the planting of the rice and the rice
harvest, when the people work together in the fields or assemble at the
village shrine to give thanks; the gathering of the villagers to raise a
ridge-pole for a new house (the ceremony which corresponds to the
laying of the corner-stone among Western peoples) ; the speeding of
pilgrims to Ise or other sanctuaries, and the celebration of their return;
open air dancing during the nights of midsummer, called Bon- dancing,
in which all the villagers join; the celebration of the Tana-bata festi-
val, when the girls march about in procession, or the processions of the
boys on New Year’s Day. Besides the songs sung on these public occa-
sions, there are many others, such as lullabies, the boys’ songs as they
chase and catch insects, the songs of the children when they discover
the first twinkling star in the evening, the songs of the horse-drivers,
of the palanquin-bearers, etc.

[Prometheus]

Many of these songs are known everywhere throughout Japan, with
slight variations in words and melody. Though the variations are
rarely of importance, we can, by comparing them, get additional light
on the interpretation of the songs, and we can learn much from them
concerning the different conditions and sentiments that prevail in dif-
ferent parts of the country.

Another point to be observed is that many of the popular songs used
today have been handed down virtually unchanged for several hundred
years. There are indeed some later songs dating from the seventeenth


370 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

or eighteenth centuries, but they can easily be detected by reason of the
superior literary polish given them by the literati of the peaceful Toku-
gawa epoch. One specimen of this class is given below in “ The Rats’
Complaint.”

The first specimen we shall give is a song of felicitation on the
occasion of building a new house, wherein nearly all the lucky figures
of Japanese folk-lore are embedded: —

“ A thousand years lives the crane,

Myriad years the tortoise,

Nine thousand the Prime-man of the East (Tobo-saku),

Eight thousand the fisher-boy of Urashima,

One hundred and six years lived General Osuke of Miura.

Live long, live long, as long as all these added together, —
Twenty-eight thousand one hundred and six years in prosperity.

Sailing hither comes the Ship of Treasures,

With its sails of brocade and satin,

With curtains purple in colour.

Therein are all the Seven Deities of good luck,

Banqueting merrily, exchanging cups of sake , —

They bring heaps of fortune to the house! ”

Another version of the same song is as follows: —

“ A crane and a tortoise abide in the house.

They play by the pine-tree, 1

And the pine-tree and bamboos prosper forever!

“ Last night I dreamed a lucky dream,

Lucky, lucky, indeed very lucky: —

1 saw the Moon, the Moon, as on my pillow I was lying,

Embracing the rising Sun,

And drinking from a golden cup the ambrosia of sake!

“ The time is spring, in the third month.

Daikoku appears first, followed by Ebisu,

And after them myriads of ships loaded with treasures! ”

Next comes one of the songs of the planting season exalting Ta-no-
kami, the Field-god. In this song Ta-no-kami is conceived of as a baby
shortly to be born, and the allusions show that he is likened to a noble
baby-prince: —

“ In India, y are! 2
In the Plain of High Heaven, y are!

There lives a god, the father of Ta-no-kami sama?


APPENDIX


37i


“ In India, yare!

In the pond where reeds grow, yare!

There abides a goddess, the mother of Ta-no-kami sama.

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

In which month was he conceived? yare!

Between the first and the third!

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

In which month will he be born?

Within less than ten months!

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

Who is his nurse? yare!

The young princess of the Dragon Palace!

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

How is his baby dress cut? y are!

Measured seven times and cut at once, yare!

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

Where is the fountain whence to take water for bathing him?

The Virgin-rock of Yamashiro! 4

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

Who fetches the water to bathe him?

The young lord of Kamakura! 6

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

Of what colour is his baby dress? yare!

It is purple with gay patterns, yare!

“ Ta-no-kami sama, yare!

What crest has his baby dress, y are!

Two feathers of a falcon within a pentagon, yare!

“Ta-no-kami sama , yare!

Where shall we welcome him? yare
In the hollow plain of Mishima, yare ” 6

Another planting song makes hardly any allusion to the myths and is
more lyrical in character: —

“ Plant rice-plants on the fields,

On our dear fields;

Plant, plant until the Moon and the stars shine!


372


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

“ I should be glad to plant rice on the fields,

Until the morning star shines and even beyond that!

If only the fields were my beloved one’s! ”

Another says: —

“ Pouring, pouring falls the rain,

Yet at last it will clear up.

When shall my heart be cleared? ”

This refers to the fact that the planting falls in the rainy season, in
June, and the song is more of a love song than a planting song.

A song sung in picking tea-leaves: —

“ Pick, pick tea-leaves in the tea-picking!

How much has been picked in tea-picking?

A thousand leaves have been picked in tea-picking!

“ An even thousand, picked and accumulated one by one;

Even as the peak of Fuji is made up of grains and soil.

“ Never be tired, never cease to pick leaves,

Pick, pick with the hands full! ”

This little lyric is often sung in beating wheat: —

“ Soft breeze, bringst thou a message from my home?

Soft breeze, if thou speakst, what is thy message from home? ”

The following must be our only specimen of the lullaby. It is one
of the most attractive of them all, however: —

“Sleep, baby, sleep!

On mountains steep

The children of the hare are straying.

Why are their soft brown ears so long and slender.

Peeping above the rocks where they are playing?

“ Because their mother, ere yet they were born,

Ate the loquat-leaves in the dewy morn,

And the bamboo-grass long and slender —

That’s why the ears of baby-hares are long.

Sleep, baby, sleep to the lilt of my song.” 7

We have spoken of the Tana-bata festival and quoted from an an-
cient poem on it; there are many popular songs made for the festival.
One is as follows: —


APPENDIX


373


“ On the seventh day of this midsummer month,

Tana-bata, the Herdsman, longs to see his wife
On the other side of Heaven’s River.

“ Should it rain, Oh, poor lover,

How shall he cross the river? ”

Another refers to the belief that good penmanship can be achieved
if one celebrates the Tana-bata festival conscientiously: —

“ Oh, dear Tana-bata sama!

Oh, dear Tana-bata sama!

Let my hands be raised! 8

“ Papers in four colours,

Yarns in five colours,

Hung high on the spotted stems of bamboo,

These are my humble offerings.”

A love song with allusion to Tana-bata: —

“ Would that I might become a star,

The star of Tana-bata!

The crimson leaves of the maples 9
Might then bridge over the stream,

And serve to convey my love across!

The coloured strings might bind my longing desire
To her pretty heart! ”

The following is a song based on the superstition that to see a shoot-
ing star flying toward you is an omen of a coming good fortune: —

“ The bright star of the evening
Shines in the sky among the meteors.

In the morning bright are
The trails of white clouds.

Let the tiny stars of gold shoot towards me
From among those bright ones in heaven.”

We shall close with a little song used in the Bon-dance. It is called
“ The Rats’ Complaint ”: —

“ Hear in pity the rats’ complaint!

We cannot but envy the good fortune of the cat.

May it happen that in the future life
We shall be born as cats!

What a happy fortune have the cats!
vm — 25


374


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

For they are loved by men and live with them,

And are fed upon delicious foods.

Cats are privileged to sit on noblemen’s knees. . . .

What bad fortune (karma) has caused us to be born rats?

Why must we live such a miserable life?

Wherever we go in the wide world,

Cats and weasels threaten us and chase us.

The cats indeed sometimes fail to catch us,

But the weasels and serpents never fail. . . .

Yet there is a paradise even for us,

A summer night when there is plenty of rice and corn.

But when the winter comes and food is scanty,

We have nothing to bite on but caskets and pieces of wood. .
Nothing nutritious, but only hard things to bite. . . .

To Buddha we bring some offerings (in excrements),

Yet we steal often from Him things that are offered to Him.
Surely we are destined to a sad future,

Alas can it never be otherwise?

How much more fortunate should we be, if, at least,

We were born as white rats! ”


NOTES



JAPANESE

Introduction

1. This is based on the similarity of physiognomy and of language.
In mythology and folklore the Koreans have been much influenced by
China, and yet their kinship with the Japanese may later receive addi-
tional proof through more careful research in this field.

2. Kojikiy pp. 93 f.; Nihongiy i. 64 f.

3. The etymology of the word Yamato is disputed. According
to the commonly accepted theory it means “ Mountain-gateways,” be-
cause the region is surrounded by mountains on all sides and opens
through a few passages to the regions beyond the mountain ranges.
This seems to be a plausible interpretation, because it is most natural to
the Japanese language. But it is a puzzling fact that the name is
written in Chinese ideograms which mean “ great peace.” However,
the ideogram meaning “ peace ” seems to have been used simply for the
Chinese appellation of the Japanese “ wa,” which, designated in an-
other letter, seems to have meant “ dwarf.” Chamberlain’s theory
is that Yamato was Ainu in origin and meant “ Chestnut and ponds.”
But this is improbable when we take into account the fact that the
ponds, numerous in the region, are later works for irrigation.

4. The two chief compilations were: Kojiki y or Records of Ancient
Matters (compiled in 712), now accessible in B. H. Chamberlain’s
English translation; and Nihongiy or Chronicles of J afan (720), Eng-
lish by W. G. Aston.

5. See e.g. T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories } or Jataka
Tales , London, 1880.

6. It is a curious fact that the greatest of modern writers of tales,
Mr. Iwaya, known among children as “ Uncle Sazanami,” became a
writer after a long struggle against the resistance of his father who
was a Confucian scholar.

7. The author’s intention was to speak of the original sources in the
treatment of his subject and on the different periods in the formation
of Japanese mythology and folk-lore. But he has not done so because
most of those materials are inaccessible in English, and those that are
accessible are set down in the Bibliography. Some points regarding the
various periods are touched upon under particular topics.


378


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY


Chapter I

1. For all the cosmological myths see Kojiki , pp. 15 f. ; Nihongi,

i- 1 - 34 -

2. Kuni-toko-tachi, i.e. “ the-One-who-stands-perpetually-over-
the-world,” or Ame-no-minaka-nashi, i.e. “ the-Lord-in-the-centre-of-
heaven.” It is disputed whether these two were one and the same, or
two different deities.

3. Taka-mi-musubi and Kami-mi-masubi. Kami in the latter
name is rendered above by “ divine,” and means “ miraculous.”

4. Izana-gi and Izana-mi, gi being masculine and mi feminine.

5. Often interpreted as the rainbow.

6. Aston and some others see here a trace of phallicism. Cf. the
Hindu myth of Pramanthyus.

7. It may be of some interest to cite the Ainu parallel of the pri-
meval couple. According to it, the couple agreed to work together to
make the island of Yezo. The husband began on the east side and the
wife on the west. While the male deity was hard at work on the east-
ern side, the female fell to chatting with another goddess, and her work
consequently fell far behind that of her husband. So when he came
to her after completing his portion, the goddess finished her part in a
great hurry. That is the reason why the western coasts are rough and
rugged, while the eastern shores are lower and less indented.

8. The name Yasu is usually interpreted as meaning “ peace.”
But another interpretation is that it meant “ many sand-banks ” or
“ broad river-basin.” The natural basis of the conception may be the
Milky Way or the rainbow.

9. The name Uzume means “ blessing,” “ wonderful.” She is
usually represented as a woman of merry expression, and with a round,
flat face. See Plates IX and XXIII.

10. More is said about this story in Chapter II.

11. Of this shrine of Kitsuki we shall speak more than once below.
Cf. also N. L. Schwartz, “ The Great Shrine of Idzumo,” TASJ
xli, 1918.

12. There are several names of this god. It seems that several per-
sons were combined into one.

13. Placed in the island of Awa, probably meaning the peninsula in
the south-eastern corner of Japan. “ Land of Eternity ” was con-
ceived to be beyond the expanse of the Pacific Ocean.

14. Nihongi, i. 32-33.

15. Of the connection between this tree and the moon we shall see
more below.

16. It has been pointed out by Dr. S. Kanazawa that the corre-


NOTES


379


spondence of these products with the parts of the body forms a play
upon words, not in Japanese but in Korean. The parallels in Korean
are as follows: mori for head and mar for horse; nun for eyes and nue
for silkworm; pai for belly and pio for rice; pochi for the genitals and
port for wheat; kui for ears and kuiri for panic; kho for nose and
khong for beans (the Telkoku Bungaku , 1907, pp. 99 f.). This seems
to prove the hypothesis that the story came over to Japan from Korea,
or had originated before the two peoples were separated.

17. A white horse is offered to Tatsuta-hime, a goddess of wind
,and weather, and also the genius of autumn, when rain is asked for.
A black horse is offered in praying for the cessation of rain. Of this
goddess we shall hear more presently.

18. C. A. Walsh, The Master Stingers of Japan (in the Wisdom of
the East series), pp. 74, 84.

19. Nihongi , i. 75; Kojiki, p. 99.

20. Walsh, pp. 47, 48.

21. See further the author’s Religious and Moral Development of
the Japanese , Chapter I.

22. Of these realms we shall speak again in connection with ghosts
and spirits.

23. These quotations are from the versified version of the Jizo
Wasan made by Clara A. Walsh, in her Master Singers of Japan, pp.
66—68, adapted from Lafcadio Hearn’s prose version. Concerning the
deity Jizo (Sanskrit, Ksiti-garbha), see the author’s Buddhist Art,
Chapter III. The mournful tune of the hymn is very impressive, and
the author himself can never forget the deep impression made in his
childhood, when his neighbours who had lost their little child chanted
this hymn.

24. Sanskrit Buddha-Kshetra. Buddhism teaches the existence of
innumerable Buddhas, who have appeared in the world in the past, and
who are to appear in the future. The paradises are the abodes of the
past Buddhas.

25. See further SBE vol. xxi, and Anesaki, Buddhist Art, Chapters
I and II.

26. See further Anesaki, Buddhist Art, Chapter II.

27. Besides the four elements distributed to the four quarters, earth,
the fifth element, was supposed to stand in the middle and to rule the
Middle Kingdom. This latter belief was not known in Japan.

28. The two sets of guardians, in their graphic or glyptic repre-
sentations, correspond after a fashion to the Christian symbols of the
four Evangelists and the figures of the Archangels. The respective
Japanese names for the four genii are: Shu-jaku, Gem-bu, Sei-ryo,
and Byak-ko.


380


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY


Chapter II

1. The story is told in the Fudo-ki of Izumo, which is one of the
few ancient Fudo-ki preserved.

2. Nihongi , i. 53-54; Kojiki , pp. 63-65.

3. The appellation Shorai is usually understood to mean “ future,”
but I suspect it to be a corruption of a Korean title. The names Somin
and Kotan are not Japanese. It is a known fact that the stories of
Susa-no-wo are in some points connected with Korea.

4. The story is told in the Fudo-ki of Hitachi, where these two
mountains are seen conspicuously. See Plates XII and XIII.

5. See above, p. 229.

6. The name Nase may mean “ Dear One ” or “ Be Not Jealous.”
Another name sometimes given to the man is Naka-samuta (“ the Mid-
dle Cool Field ”). Aze may mean either “ Trail ” or “ My Dear,”
and another name is Unakami-aze (“ the Trail on the Sea ”? ).

7. In ancient Japan the custom of organizing this meeting among
young men and women was the same everywhere. The poems ex-
changed between Nase and Aze are obscure, but amount to this: “ I
would have thee, O Aze, decorated like a young pine tree with pieces
of hemp hanging on the branches.” The reply is: “ The rising tide
may conceal thee, O Nase, yet even stepping over eighty islets and rocks
I would desire to follow thee! ” “Pieces of hemp hanging” refers
to a charm used to bind lovers.


Chapter III

1. In one of the versions ascribed to Hinu-yama in Tango the man
is an old man and he adopts the fairy. Many men compete for her
favour, but all of them fail. So far the story resembles that of Lady
Brilliance, which is told below. When her suitors urge her to marry,
she flies away to heaven.

2. See an English translation in B. H. Chamberlain, The Classical
Poetry of the Japanese, London, 1880. The latter part of the trans-
lation is reproduced below.

3. The Japanese phrase for a strong passion is “ the breast aflame.”

4. Cf. Nihongi , p. 368. For a poetic version of the eighth century
see B. H. Chamberlain, Japanese Poetry , London, 1911, pp. 11— 13.
Lafcadio Hearn tells the story in his Out of the East , London, 1895,
in the article, “ The Dream of a Summer Day.” There are many
other English versions, e.g., A. L. Whitehorn, Wonder Tales of Old
Japan, pp. 71 ff. ; Y. Ozaki, The Japanese Fairy Book-, etc.


NOTES


381

5. Along the coasts of Japan there are several mounds said to be
Urashima’s grave. One of these, near Kanagawa, was made use of by
Bakin, who wrote a Japanese “ Gulliver ” about a fisherman who lived
near the mound. See below, Chapter IX.

6. Nihongi, i. 92— 104; Kojiki , p. 126 f. ; Japanese Fairy Tale
Series , No. 1 1 .

7. For more concerning these immortals, see Anesaki, Buddhist
Arty Chapter IV.

8. One version is that the child was Fubito’s natural son.

9. This story is dramatized in one of the No dramas; the drama
represents a visit paid by Fusazaki, the child of the dead woman. The
story is told in more detail in Y. Ozaki, The Crystal of Buddha , Yoko-
hama (Kelly and Walsh).

10. The male is Same-bito, “the shark-man.” Cf. Lafcadio
Hearn, Shadowings , London, 1900.

11. Sanskrit, Eka-srga. Cf. Takakusu, The Story of the Rsi
Ekasrnga (Hansei Zasshi), 1898, p. 10 f.

12. See Tsure-zure-gusa, tr. by G. B. Sansom, TASJ xxxix, 1911.

13. Cf. further, Anesaki, Buddhist Arty Chapter IV.

14. See sufra, p. 223.

15. Kala meant originally “death,” but kala modified to kala was
interpreted to mean “ black.”

[Prometheus]

Chapter IV

1. The ancient Shinto mythology speaks of Maga-tsumi, the wicked
spirits, whose chief is Oh-maga-tsumi, the Great Evil-doer, and whose
hosts are believed to be attendants of the Storm-God and his descend-
ants, especially of the Great-Land-Master. But neither their appear-
ance nor their evil deeds are ever described. These creatures were al-
most totally eclipsed by the Buddhist demons, and it was Hirata, the
pseudo-rationalistic revivalist of Shinto, who revived the dread of these
evil-doers in the nineteenth century. But his influence did not reach
the people at large.

2. Cf. Japanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 7, “ The Old Man and the
Devils,” tr. by Hepburn.

3. Derived from the idea that the Oni devours human flesh.

4. See further on this festival, infra , p. 350.

5. For Daikoku’s mallet, see sufra, p. 279. Similar mysterious
sources of inexhaustible supply are told of in “ The Rice-bale of
Toda,” see p. 315. The idea of a one-inch boy may be traced to that
of the Small-Renown-Man, see p. 229.


382 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

6. But the place is specified as Mount Togakushi in Shinano.

7. Cf. infra , pp. 306 flF., and A. L. Whitehorn, Wonder Tales of
la-pan, pp. 1 29 flF.

Chapter V

1. Cf. Kojiki, pp. 261—264.

2. Who the mother was the tale does not say: probably she was in-
tended to personify Nature.

3. The curse was this: the mother made a basket of bamboo, put
therein stones taken from a river-basin, and mixed in it bamboo-leaves
and salt. The words of the curse show that the leaves were intended to
symbolize growth and withering, while the salt symbolized the ebb and
flow of the tides of the sea.

4. Cf. Chamberlain, Japanese Poetry, London, 1 9 1 1 , pp. 16— 18.

5. In Sanskrit, Saddharma-pundarika. For more about this book
and its influence see Anesaki, Religious and Moral Development of the
Japanese, Chapter III; and Nichiren , the Buddhist Prophet.

6. Many other women are typified by their names, mostly taken
from flowers. They are the ladies Wistaria, Mugwort, Young Fern,
and Pink Plum, while others have such names as Evening Mist, Cicada,
or Wild Duck in the Clouds. Of the Lady Evening-glory we shall
hear more presently.

7. The symbols consist of various combinations, amounting to
fifty-two or fifty-four, of five vertical lines with one or two horizontal
lines. These symbolic patterns were originally used in a game of dis-
criminating the several varieties in incense. Cf. the author’s Japa-
nese A rt.

8. Yone Noguchi, The Spirit of Japanese Poetry, ( Wisdom of the
East series), London, 1914, p. 112.

9. The banana-plant is always associated with frailty and evanes-
cence in Japanese literature. See Chapter VIII.

IO. “Evening-glory” is the name given to the flowers of the
bottle-gourd plant. The pale flowers blooming in the dusk of evening
suggest something lonely and melancholy, and well symbolize the tem-
perament and fate of the unfortunate girl.


Chapter VI

1. Observe that the story has some similarities with that of Susa-
no-wo.

2. Cf. Nihongi, i. 200—210; Kojiki, pp. 205— 223. The attempt
of a modern Japanese scholar to make out of the prince a prophetic


NOTES 383

redeemer is surely a total failure. We refer to it in order to show how
much importance the Japanese give to these early legends.

3. He is deified and known as Hachiman, the god of the Eight
Banners. He became later the patron deity of the Minamoto clan.

4. See sufra , p. 252.

5. The number “ four ” in this and similar cases is taken from the
number of the four guardian kings in Buddhist mythology, for which
cf. sufra , p. 242, and Anesaki, Buddhist Art.

6. Cf. Jafanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 18, “ The Ogre’s Arm ”
(tr. by Mrs. T. H. James), and No. 19, “ The Ogres of Oye-yama.”

7. Gen is the Sino-Japanese pronounciation of the Chinese ideo-
gram which was used to designate the name Minamoto, while Hei or
Pei in compound with Gen was that of the name Taira. The two epics
are Hei-ke Monogatari and Gem-Pei Seisui-ki, an expanded version of
the former. See further on these conflicts, De Benneville, Saito
Musas hi ho Benkei.

8. For the appearance of the Tengus, see Chapter IV, sufra,
P- 287.

9. Notice the Christophorus motive so common in folklore.

10. The dramatized versions of some of these are accessible in G. B.
Sansom’s English translations of the No-dramas — “ Benkei at the
Barrier ” and “ Benkei in the Boat,” in TASJ xl, 1912.

11. Like his uncle, Tametomo, according to some traditions, he is
said to have gone over to Yezo, and even farther to the Asiatic continent,
and to have become Genghiz Khan.

1 2. The first draft of the story is the So ga-Mono gatari probably from
the first half of the thirteenth century. There are several dramatized
versions from the fifteenth century and following centuries. A cir-
cumstance that added to the popularity of the story is that the revenge
was completed in the camp of a large hunting party organized by
Yoritomo at the foot of Fuji.

13. Cf. Whitehorn, Wonder Tales of Old Jafan, p. I ff. ; Fairy
Tale Series, No. 1, and several other books on Japanese folklore.
Notice in the story a trace of the story of Rama’s expedition to Ceylon.
That story had long been known in rough outlines through Buddhist
books, though not very widely circulated. Cf. K. Watanabe, “ Oldest
Record of the Ramayana in a Chinese Buddhist Writing,” ( JRAS ,
Jan. 1907).

14. Jafanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 15 (tr. by B. H. Chamberlain) ;
Whitehorn, Wonder Tales of Old Jafan, pp. 139 fir.


384


JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY


Chapter VII

1. Japanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 1 1, pp. 68—7 I.

2. Hence a proverb: “The sparrows never forget to dance even
when they are a hundred years old.”

3. This frequently occurs in stories of the Middle Ages in Japan.

4. This is an example of a visit to the wonderful palace beyond
the actual world.

5. M. W. de Visser, “ The Fox and the Badger in Japanese Folk-
lore,” TASJ xxxvi, 1908, pt. iii; “ The Dog and the Cat in Japanese
Folk-lore,” ib., xxxvii, 1909.

6. See B. H. Chamberlain, The Classical Poetry of the Japanese,
London, 1880, pp. 147-156.

7. The story is in Kon-jaku Monogatari, “ Tales Ancient and
Modern,” written in the eleventh century. This book is one of the
oldest of the kind, and was followed by many others.

8. “The Cub’s Triumph,” Japanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 12.
Another story of a badger is that of “ Kachi-kachi Yama.” A badger
caught by a wood-cutter devoured the man’s wife. A hare came to the
assistance of the distressed wood-cutter and finally succeeded in drown-
ing the badger, ibid., No. 5.

9. Cf. Japanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 3.

10. A kind of starch made of sea-weed, slippery when diluted.

11. Hence a proverb: “A stinging bee on a weeping face.” It
means a double annoyance and trouble.

12. This is the story of Hidaka-gawa, well known through its popu-
lar dramatization and the serpent dance that accompanies it.

13. This is another famous story of Kato-Saemon, the warrior, also
dramatized.

14. Also called Nanso-bo. The etymology of this name is obscure,
but bo means a priest or monk. The story is told in different localities.

15. The Buddhist idea is that the karma, which causes one to be-
come a serpent, establishes a fellowship with other serpents, and there-
fore may make possible a love relation with any of them. In spite of
his pious intentions Nanzo-bo was then in reality a beast.

16. The lights seen in the dark night hovering over marsh-lands
are often explained as torches lighted for the wedding of two foxes.

17. J apanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 6.

18. Y. Ozaki, The Crystal of Buddha, pp. 69—81.

19. The letter is written in imitation of the birds’ language, and
makes poetic allusion to the characteristics of various birds.

20. The name Uso-dori may mean a “ lying bird,” and the name
may have given rise to the story.


NOTES 385

21. Cf. the Chapter on Dragon-flies in L. Hearn’s A Japanese
Miscellany y London, 1901.

22. The word matsu means both “ pine-tree ” and “ to wait.” The
story is that two friends who were very fond of hearing the singing
insects went out to the field of Abe-no. One of them died there, and
ever since he sings plaintively in harmony with the insects while he
waits for his friend to join him.

23. See Plate XL.

Chapter VIII

1. T sure-zure-gusa } tr. by G. B. Sansom, TASJ xxxix, 49—50.

2. The tribute paid to the pine-tree is of Chinese origin, yet its
evergreen naturally suggests prosperity, and the magnitude which it
often attains well symbolizes longevity.

3. According to the version of Clara A. Walsh, Master Singers of
Jafan } p. 70.

4. Basho is the banana-plant, but the name has associations in Chi-
nese and Japanese totally different from those in English. In Japan
the banana-plant bears no fruit, its leaves are always associated with the
idea of frailty, and their torn and withered appearance in autumn sug-
gests evanescence.

5. More is said in the poem about the relation between reality and
appearance, from the Buddhist point of view of the “ Middle Path,”
for which see further Anesaki, Nichiren.

6. Kocho Monogatariy from the seventeenth century.

7. The flowers are enumerated in the story as follows: bottle-gourd
(or “evening-glory”), yamabuki (Kerria japonica), ominameshiy or
the “lady-flower” (Patrinia scabiosaefolia), lily, convolvulus, chry-
santhemum, wistaria, lotus, etc. The story was evidently suggested by
the simile of the plants in the fifth chapter of The Lotus of Truth.

8. The name may mean “ depending on wind,” or “ little field.”
Whether the name was fictitiously invented for the story or was a real
name cannot be established.

9. Its flowers are of a bluish tint.

10. Cf. E. W. Clement, Japanese Floral Calendar y Chicago, 1905;
M. B. Huish, “ Flora and Flower Festivals,” in his Jafan and its Art ,
London, 1889; Carruthers, Jafan’s Y.ear.

1 1. The Japanese uguisu, commonl/ called “ nightingale,” has very
different associations from those of the western nightingale. Its gay
singing is regarded as heralding the cor ling of spring. Its note is said
to repeat Hokke-kyo , the Japanese name of the Buddhist scripture, The
Lotus of Truth.


386 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

12. A mattress is often made of its leaves. According to Professor
Weiner of Harvard University, mattresses of this kind were exported
from China to Central Asia and further west, and hence the name
“ bed ” or Bett, a corruption of the Chinese word but , corresponding to
the last syllable of shobu.

13. Cf. Anesaki, Japanese Art, Chapter I.

14. Clara A. Walsh, The Master Singers of Jafan, p. 103. Re-
ferring to this poem Miss C. E. Furness of Vassar College has some-
thing interesting to say. She writes: “ I should like to mention one
poem because it touches upon a point which I have often observed but
have never seen referred to anywhere. I have often noticed the moon-
light falling upon a tree whose leaves have turned with the autumn
frosts. There are several near our Observatory, and as my work takes
me out of doors in the evening I have looked up at the moon through
the leaves or seen it shining full upon a tree. The effect is more beau-
tiful when the leaves are yellow than when they are red. Then it
seems like fairyland or even something more ethereal than that, for I
cannot associate fairies with the stillness of the night. Often it is so
silent that one can hear a leaf fall, touching other leaves softly as it
drops through the branches and comes to rest gently on the ground.
Japanese poems on nature seem to be more intimate, more melancholy
than ours.”


Chapter IX

1. See page 285.

2. J afanese Fairy Tale Series, No. 25.

3. For the idea and practice of “ dedication,” in Japanese, ekb, see
Anesaki, Buddhist Art, Chapter I; any work performed with pious in-
tention is believed to effect the spiritual welfare of the deceased.

4. B. H. Chamberlain, The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, pp.
199 ff.

5. Cf. B. H. Chamberlain, “ Wasaubiyauwe, the Japanese Gul-
liver,” T AS J vii, part 4; L. Mordwin, “ Glimpses of Dreamlands,” in
Chrysanthemum, Yokohama, 1881—2, where the first two chapters of
Wa-So-Byoye are reproduced.

6. For the Island of Women ci. The Mythology of all Races, vols.
iii. 1 17 and ix. 140, and references there; also J. A. MacCulloch, The
Religion of the Ancient Celts, Edinburgh, 191 1, p. 385.

Appendix

I. A pine-tree is regarded as indispensable in a respectable garden,
and often a crane and tortoise in bronze or pottery are placed under it.


/

/

/

/


NOTES 387

2. Yare is a joyous exclamation. It is repeated much more fre-
quently in the original.

3. Sama means “ venerable.”

4. The site of the temple of Hachiman, see supra, p. 252.

5. The heir of the Minamoto Dictator.

6. The god of Mishima was revered by the Minamotos and the
Samurais in general next to Hachiman.

7. C. A. Walsh, The Master Singers of Japan , pp. 7 1— 72. This is
given there on Hearn’s authority, as a cradle song in Izumo, but it is
a song almost universally used in Japan.

8. I.e. “ attain dexterity in hand-writing.”

9. Earnest thought or desire is called the “ red heart,” and a favour-
able response to a love-letter is said to be “ of fine colours ” or “ well-
tinged.”



BIBLIOGRAPHY



CHINESE


i

Allen, C. F. R., “ Tales from the Liao Chai,” China Review, ii.
364, iii. 18, iv. 26.

Biot, Edouard, Le Tcheou-Li, vols. 1 and 2. Paris, 1851.

Bruce, J. P., Philosophy of Human Nature, London, 1922.

Chu Hsi and His Masters, London, 1923.

Carus, Paul, Lao-Tze's Tao-Teh-King, Chicago, 1898.

Chavannes, E., Les Memoires historiques de Se-Ma-Ts y ien , Paris,
1895-1905.

C hinese Repository, 183 2—5 I .

Cordier, Henri, Bibliotheca Sinica (See sections on Religion, Science
and Arts, General Works and Literature, Moeurs et Coutumes),
Paris, 1904-8. Supplement, vol. v, brings this work up to April,
I924 ‘

Couling, S., Encyclopaedia Sinica, Shanghai, 1917*

De Groot, J. J. M., The Religious System of China, 6 vols., Leyden,
1892-1910.

The Religion of the Chinese, New York, 1910.

Dennys, N. B., The Folk-lore of China, London, 1876.

Dore, Henri, Recherches sur les superstitions en Chine. (There is
an English translation of this. Shanghai, 1914.)

Douglas, R. K., Confucianism and Taoism, London, 1877.

Chinese Stories, Edinburgh, 1893.

Du Bose, Hampden C., The Dragon, Image and Demon, London,
1886.

Du Halde, J. B., History of China , Tr. R. Brooks, (3rd ed.), Lon-
don, 1741.

Edkins, J., Religion in China, London, 1878.

Faber, E., “ Taoism,” China Review, xiii. 23 1.

Ferguson, John C., Index to “ China Review, yy Shanghai, 1918.

Outlines of Chinese Art, Chicago, 1919.

Ferguson, Peter B., Index to <c Journal of the North China Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society, yy Shanghai, 1924.

Fung, Yu-lan, C omparative Study of Life Ideals, Shanghai, 1925.

Giles, Herbert A., Biographical Dictionary , Shanghai, 1897.

Chuang Tzu, London, 1889.

Confucianism and Its Rivals, London, 1915.

Gems of Chinese Literature, London, 1884.


392


CHINESE MYTHOLOGY


Glossary of References , Shanghai, 1900.

Religions of Ancient China , London, 1905.

Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio , 2 vols., London, 1880.

Giles, Lionel, Sayings of Lao Tzu, London, 1904.

Taoist Teachings , London, 1913.

Hackman, H., Buddhism as a Religion , London, 1910.

Henke, F. G., Wang Yang-ming , Chicago, 1916.

Hirth, F., Asicient History of China , New York, 1 9 1 1 .

Howell, E. B., The Inconstancy of Madame Chuang and other
stories translated from Chin Ku Ch'i Kuan, Shanghai, 1 925.
Johnson, R. F., Buddhist China , London, 1913.

Kingsmill, T. W., “ The Tao Teh King,” China Review, xxiv.

1 47—1 55, and 185-196.

Laufer, B., Jade , Chicago, 1912.

Legge, James, The Chinese Classics, translated, 3 vols., London,
1867-76.

The Chinese Classics (Chinese and English), Hongkong,

1861-72.

The Religions of China , London, 1880.

The T exts of Confucianism {Sacred Books of the East series),

4 vols., Oxford; I. The Shu King; 2. The Yi King; 3, 4. The
LI Ki .

The Texts of Taoism {Sacred Books of the East series), 2

vols., Oxford; I, 2. The Tao Teh King; Writings of Kwang-
Zze, etc.

Li Ung Bing, Outlines of Chinese History, Shanghai, 1914.
Macgowan, J., Chinese Folk-lore Tales, London, 1910.
Mackenzie, D. A., Myths of China and Japan, London, 1924.
Martin, W. A. P., Hanlin Papers, London, 1890.

Hanlin Papers (Series 2), Shanghai, 1894.

Mayers, W. F., Chinese Reader's Manual, London, 1 9 10. (Reprint)
Parker, E. H., China and Religion , London, 1905.

Soothill, W. E., Three Religions of China, 2nd ed., London, 1923.
Wei, F. C., Political Principles of Mencius, Shanghai, 1916.
Werner, E. T. C., Myths and Legends of China, London, 1922.
Wieger, L., Folk-lore chinois moderne, Sienhsien, 1907*

Moral Tenets and Customs in China, Ho-tsien-fu, 1913.

Textes historiques, 3 vols., Paris, 1905.

Taoisme, Paris, 1911— 13.

Wylie, A., Notes on Chinese Literature (new edition), Shanghai,
1902.

The Chinese books from which translated quotations are made are
mentioned in the Text and Index.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


393


II. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES CONNECTED WITH CHI-
NESE MYTHOLOGY IN THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
RELIGION AND ETHICS (VOLS. I-XII)

Ball, J. D., “ Hospitality (Chinese),” vi. 803—4.

“ Human Sacrifice (Chinese),” vi. 845—7.

“ Hymns (Chinese),” vii. 4—5.

“Images and Idols (Chinese),” vii. 130— I.

“ Life and Death (Chinese),” viii. 14—16.

“Light and Darkness (Chinese),” viii. 51—2.

“ Music (Chinese),” ix. 16—19.

— “ Names (Chinese),” ix. 143—5.

“ Prayer (Chinese),” x. 170— 1.

“ Sin (Chinese),” xi. 535—7.

“ Tonsure (Chinese),” xii. 387—8.

Bateson, J. H., “ Festivals and Fasts (Chinese),” v. 843—4.
Bullock, T. L., “Calendar (Chinese),” iii. 82—4.

“ Ethics and Morality (Chinese),” v. 466—8.

Cornaby, W. A., “ God (Chinese),” vi. 272-4.

De Groot, J. J. M., “ China (Buddhism in),” iii. 552-6.

“ Confucian Religion,” iv. 12—15.

Dukes, E. J., “ Feng-shui,” v. 833-5.

Fu, Tung, “ Sun, Moon, and Stars (Chinese),” xii. 74-80.

Gray, L. H., “ Calendar (Chinese),” iii. 82-4.

“ Fiction (Primitive, Oriental, etc.),” vi. 5.

“ Mean (Chinese),” viii. 510— I.

Henke, F. G., “ Wang Yang-ming,” xii. 673-5.

Hyamson, A. M., “ China (Jews in),” iii. 556-60.

Ito, C., “ Architecture (Chinese),” i. 693-6.

Johnson, H. J. T., “ Priest, Priesthood (Chinese),” x. 290-3.
Johnston, R. F., “ Magic (Chinese),” viii. 259-62.

“ Old Age (Chinese),” ix. 466—9.

“ Ordeal (Chinese),” ix. 516-8.

“ Purification (Chinese),” x. 470—4.

“ Vows (Chinese),” xii. 646—9.

“ War-gods (Chinese),” xii. 692—4.

“ Worship (Chinese),” xii. 759—62.

MacLagan, P. J., “ Demons and Spirits (Chinese),” iv. 576-8.

“ Education (Chinese),” v. 183—5.

“ Family (Chinese),” v. 730—3.

“ Heroes and Hero-gods (Chinese),” vi. 646—7.

“ Literature (Chinese),” viii. 89—91.

“Love (Chinese),” viii. 164.


394

[Prometheus]

CHINESE MYTHOLOGY


“ Mencius,” viii. 547—9.

“ Micius,” viii. 623—4.

“ Saints and Martyrs (Chinese),” xi. 51.

“ Suicide (Chinese),” xii. 26.

“ Taoism,” xii. 197—202.

Parker, E. H., “ Blessedness (Chinese),” ii. 672-5.

Richard, T., “ Sects (Chinese),” xi. 309-15.

Takakusu, J., “ Yuan-chwang, Fa-hian and I-tsing,” xii. 841-3.
Walshe, W. G., “ Altar (Chinese),” i. 337—8.

“ Birth (Chinese),” ii. 645-6.

“ Chastity (Chinese),” iii. 490-1.

“ China,” iii. 549—52.

“ Communion with the Dead (Chinese),” iii. 728—32.

“Communion with Deity (Chinese),” iii. 751—2.

“ Confucius,” iv. 16—19.

“ Cosmogony and Cosmology (Chinese),” iv. 138—41.

“ Crimes and Punishments (Chinese),” iv. 269—72.

“ Death and Disposal of the Dead (Chinese),” iv. 450-4.

“ Fate (Chinese),” v. 783—5.

“ Fortune (Chinese),” vi. 91—3.

“ Mysticism (Chinese),” ix. 87—9.

Wu, Chao-chu, “ Law ('Chinese),” vii. 830-1.


JRAS

MDGO

SEE .
TASJ

TCHR

TJSL


JAPANESE

I. ABBREVIATIONS

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Na-
tur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens, (Tokyo).
Sacred Books of the East.

Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan (Yoko-
hama).

Transactions of the International Congress of the
History of Religions.

Transactions of the Japan Society, London.


II. TEXTS
i. Shinto

Ancient Japanese Rituals. Tr. by Sir E. Satow, TASJ, vols. vii, ix,
1879, 1881, and continued by K. Florenz, ib., vol. xxvii, 1899.

Das Shinto Gebet der grossen Reinigung. H. Weipert, MDGO , vol.
vi, 1897.

Japanese Texts , Primitive and Medieval. Ed. with Introd., Notes,
and Glossaries by F. V. Dickins, C.B. 2 vols. Oxford, 1906.

Ko-ji-ki, or Records of Ancient Matters. Tr. by B. H. Chamberlain.
Supplement to vol. x, TASJ 1883. Index by N. Walter and
A. Lloyd, ib., 1906.

Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan to A.D. 6pj. Tr. by W. G. Aston.
Supplement i to TJSL. 2 vols. London, 1896.

Nihongi oder Japanische Annalen. (Teil iii) Ubersetzt und erklart
von K. Florenz. Supp. to vols. v and vi, MDGO 1892—7. Re-
vised ed., 1903.

2. Buddhist

Buddhist Mahay ana Texts. 2 parts in 1 vol. I. The Buddha-Karita
of Asvaghosha , tr. E. B. Cowell. 2. The Sukhavati-V yuha , The
V agrakkhedika, The Pragha, P aramita-Hriday a-Sutra, tr. F. Max
Muller. The Amitayur-Dhyana-Sutra , tr. J. Takakusu. ( SBE
vol. 49).

The Saddharma Pundarika , or the Lotus of the True Law, tr. H. Kern.
(SBE vol. 21 j.


396 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

III. GENERAL WORKS

Anesaki, M., Buddhist Art in Relation to Buddhist Ideals. Boston,
1 9 1 5 •

Nichiren , The Buddhist Prophet. Cambridge (U. S. A.),

1916.

• Religious History of Japan. Tokyo, 1897.

“ Buddhist Influence upon the Japanese,” TCHR (Oxford,

1908), i. 154-7.

“ Honen, the Pietist Saint of Japanese Buddhism,” ibid., i.

122 - 8 .

Aston, W. G., History of Japanese Literature. London, 1899.

Shinto: The Way of the Gods. ib. } 1905.

“ Tori-wa, its Derivation,” TASJ xxvii, 1899.

Balet, L., Etudes sur le Bouddhisme japonais. ( Melanges japonais }
nr. 18, 21, 22). Tokyo, 1906.

Brauns, D., Japanische Marchen und ’ Sagen. Leipzig, 1885.

Brinkley, F., Japan and China , Their History , Arts, and Literature.
1 2 vols. London, 1903—4.

Chamberlain, B. H., Japanese Poetry . London, 1911.

The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. ib. y 1880.

The Language , Mythology , and Geographical N omenclature

of Japan } viewed in the Light of Aino Studies. Tokyo, 1887.

Things Japanese f London, 1905.

Chamberlain, B. H., and Mason, W. B., Japan 9 (Murray’s Hand-
books). ib. y 1913.

Clement, E. W., Japanese Floral Calendar. Chicago, 1905.

A Handbook of Modern Japan. London, 1904.

“ Japanese Calendar,” TASJ xxx, 1902.

“ Japanese Medical Folk-lore,” ib. y xxxv, 1907.

Cobbold, G. A., Religion in Japan. London, 1894.

Florenz, K., Der Shintoismus. In Die Kultur der Gegenwart : die
Orientalischen Religionen . 2 Berlin and Leipzig, 1913.

Die historischen Quellen der Shinto-Rcligion. Aus dem. Alt-

jap. und Chin, iibersetzt und erklart. Gottingen und Leipzig,
1 9 1 9 -

Die Japaner. In Lehrbuch der Religions geschichte begrundet

von Chantepie de la Saussaye y i. 262—422. Tubingen, 1925.

Geschichte der J apanischen Litteratur. Leipzig, 1906.

J apanische Mythologie. Nihongi , Zeitalter der Gotter.

Nebst Erganzungen aus andern alten Quellenwerken. Tokyo,
1901.

Greene, D. C., “ Remmon Kyokwai,” TASJ xxix, 1901.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


397

“ Tenri-kyo, or the Teaching of the Heavenly Reason,” ibid.,

xxiii, 1895.

Griffis, W. E., The Religions of Jafan. London, 1895.

J afanese Fairy World. ih. y 1887.

Haas, H., Der Buddhismus. In Die Kultur der Ge gen-wart: Die
Orientalischen Religionen . 2 Berlin and Leipzig, 1913.

“ Annalen des jap. Buddhismus.” MDGO x. 1904.

“ Der heilige Kanon des Buddhismus in Japan.” ibid., x,

1904 -

Hall, J. C., “ A Japanese Philosopher on Shinto,” TCHR (Oxford,
1908), i. 158-65.

Harada, T., The Faith of Jafan. New York, 1914.

Hearn, L., Gleanings in Buddha- fields. London, 1897.

Glimfses of Unfamiliar Jafan. 2 vols. ib. y 1905.

In Ghostly Jafan. ib. y 1899.

Jafan: An Attemft at Interfretation. New York, 1904.

Hildburgh, W. L., “ Japanese Household Magic,” TJSL 1908.
Jafanese Fairy Tale Series. 16 numbers in 4 vols. Tokyo, 1888.
Jolv, H., Legend in Jafanese Art. London, 1907.

Lloyd, A., The Creed of Half Jafan. London, 191 1.

Shinran and his Work. Tokyo, 1909.

“ Formative Elements of Japanese Buddhism,” TASJ xxxv,

1908.

“ The Remmon Kyo,” TASJ xxix, 1901.

Lowell, P., Occult Jafan. Boston, 1895.

“ Esoteric Shinto,” TASJ xxi, xxii, 1893—4.

Mitford, A. B., Tales of Old Jafan. 2 vols. London, 1871.
Munro, N. G., “ Primitive Culture in Japan,” TASJ xxxiv,
1906.

Nanjio, B., The Twelve J afanese Buddhist Sects. Tokyo, 1887.
Nitobe, I., Bushido . 10 New York, 1905.

Noguchi, Y., The Sfirit of Jafanese Poetry ( Wisdom of the East
series). London, 1914.

Okakura, K., The Ideals of the East. London, 1904.

Omori, Z., “ A History of the Zen Shu in Japan,” TCHR (Oxford,
1908), i. 128-132.

“ Principles of Practice and Enlightenment of the Soto Zen

Shu,” ibid., i. 150-4.

Ozaki, Y., J afanese Fairy Tales. New York, 1903.

The Jafanese Fairy Book. London, 1922.

Re VON, M., Anthologie de la litterature jafonaise. Paris, 1 9 10.

Le Shinntoisme. ib. y 1905.

Manuel de la litterature jafonaise. ib. y 19 10.


398 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

“ Les anciens rituels du Shinto consideres comme formules

magiques,” TCHR (Oxford, 1908), i. 165-181.

Satow, Sir E., “ The Revival of Pure Shinto,” app. to TASJ iii. 1875.

“ The Shinto Temples of Ise,” ibid., ii. 1874.

Other articles in TASJ. See also under Section II.

Schiller, E., Shinto , die V olksreligion Japans. Berlin-Schoneberg,
191 1.

Schurhammer, G., Shinto , der W eg der Gotter in Japan: Der Shin-
toismus nach den gedruckten und ungedruckten Berichten der
japanischen J esuitenmissionare des 16. und i~j. J ahrhunderts .
Bonn and Leipzig, 1923.

Schwartz, W. L., “ The Great Shrine of Idzumo, Some Notes on
Shinto, Ancient and Modern,” TASJ x li, 1913.

VissER, M. W. DE, Shinto, de godsdienst van Japan. Leiden.

Articles on “The Tengu,” “The Fox and the Badger in

Japanese Folk-lore,” “ The Dog and the Cat in Japanese Folk-
lore,” TASJ xxxvi-xxxvii, 1908—9.

Walsh, C. A., The Master Singers of Japan ( Wisdom of the East
series). London, 1910.

Wenckstern, F. von, Bibliography of the Japanese Empire. 2 vols.
London and Tokyo, 1895—1907.

Whitehorn, A. L., Wonder Tales of Old Japan.

IV. PRINCIPAL ARTICLES ON JAPANESE RELIGION
IN THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION AND
ETHICS (VOLS. I-XII)

Anesaki, M., “ Asanga,” ii. 62.

“ Asvaghosa,” ii. 159—160.

“ Dhyana,” iv. 702—4.

“ Docetism (Buddhist),” iv. 835—40.

“ Ethics and Morality (Buddhist),” v. 447-455.

“ Hymns (Japanese),” vii. 46—7.

“ Life and Death (Japanese),” viii. 37—9.

“ Missions (Buddhist),” viii. 700-5.

“ Philosophy (Japanese),” ix. 869—73.

“ Pilgrimage (Japanese),” x. 27—8.

“Prayer (Buddhist),” x. 166-70.

? “ Sun, Moon, and Stars (Japanese),” xii. 88.

? “ Transmigration (Buddhist),” xii. 429-30.

“ Vows (Buddhist),” xii. 644-6.

Armstrong, R. C., “ Ninomiya Sontoku,” ix. 374—5.

Ashida, K., “Japan,” vii. 481-489.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


399


Aston, W. G., “ Abandonment and Exposure (Japanese),” 1. 7.

“Adoption (Japanese),” i. no— 1 1.

“Altar (Japanese),” i. 346.

“ Architecture (Shinto),” i. 773.

“ Art (Shinto),” i. 886.

“ Crimes and Punishments (Japanese),” iv. 285—8.

“ Shinto,” xi. 462—71.

Batchelor, J., “ Ainus,” i. 239-252.

Blackman, W. S., “ Rosaries,” x. 851-2.

Clement, E. W., “ Calendar (Japanese),” iii. 114-117.

Courant, M., “ Korea,” vii. 755-8.

Davids, T. W. Rhys, “ Sects (Buddhist),” xi. 307—9.

Geden, A. S., “ Priest, Priesthood (Buddhist),” x. 288—90.

Gray, Louis H.,“ Fiction (Primitive, Oriental, and Graeco-Roman),”
vi. 5-6.

Harada, T., “ Family (Japanese),” v. 740—1.

“ God (Japanese),” vi. 294—5.

“ Images and Idols (Japanese and Korean),” vii. 146-8.

“Names (Japanese),” ix. 1 6 7' — 8-

“Purification (Japanese),” x. 495—6.

“ Suicide (Japanese),” xii. 35—7.

Hildburgh, W. L., “ Charms and Amulets (Japanese),” iii. 449—

45 H

Lloyd, A., “ Death and Disposal of the Dead (Japanese),” iv. 485—
497 -

“Demons and Spirits (Japanese),” iv. 608—612.

“ Daibutsu,” iv. 388-91.

“Drama (Japanese),” iv. 888—895.

MacCulloch, J. A., “ Blest, Abode of the (Japanese),” ii. 700-702.

“ Lycanthrophy,” viii. 21 1.

“ Religious Orders (Japanese),” x. 718.

“ Temples,” xii. 244.

Muraoka, H., “ Music (Japanese),” ix. 48—51.

Nakajima, T., “ Law (Japanese),” vii. 854—5.

“ Marriage (Japanese and Korean), viii. 459—60.

Revon, M., “ Ancestor Worship and Cult of the Dead (Japanese),”
i- 455 — 457 -

“Asceticism (Japanese),” ii. 96—7.

“ Communion with Deity (Japanese),” iii. 774—5.

“ Cosmogony and Cosmology (Japanese),” iv. 162—6.

“Divination (Japanese),” iv. 801-6.

“ Heroes and Hero-gods (Japanese),” vi. 662—4.

“ Hospitality (Japanese and Korean),” vi. 814—6.


400 JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY

“ Human Sacrifice (Japanese and Korean),” vi. 855-8.

“ Magic (Japanese),” viii. 296—300.

“ Nature (Japanese),” ix. 233—40.

“ Old Age (Japanese),” ix. 474-5.

“Possession (Japanese),” x. 1 3 1 — 3.

“ Prayer (Japanese),” x. 189—91.

“Sacrifice (Japanese),” xi. 21—4.

? “ Saints and Martyrs (Japanese),” xi. 61—2.

“ Sin (Japanese),” xi. 566-7.

“ Worship (Japanese),” xii. 802-4.

Robinson, C. H., “ Flowers,” vi. 53-4.

Tachibana, S., Ethics and Morality (Japanese),” v. 498-501.
Takakusu, J., “ Dhyana,” iv. 702-4.

“ Kwan-Yin,” vii. 763—5.

Wogihara, U., “ Vasubandhu,” xii. 595-6.


INDEX TO CHINESE TERMS





INDEX

TO CHINESE TERMS


An-ch’i

An-ch’i Sheng S 3 £> 115,
145, 146.

An Lu-shan ^ jft£ ill. 96.

An Ti ^ -t, 188.

Ao-tse H: fig, 133 -
Cha j(g, 61.

Chan Hou £ 143. 144-

Chan Kuo [U, 143.

Chan Yao Kuai |f 123.

Ch’an Tzh-fang # 3 ?. 75 . 7 6 -

Chang JJ, 46.

Chang Chio 55 ^ . * 74 -
Chang Chiu-ling 55 Jl S». 68.
Chang Er-ch’i 55 Iff tfS. 70.

Chang Fei 55 ffil, 174, 176, 177.
Chang Hsien 55 {|Ij, 82, 83, 84.
Chang Hua 55 |j|, 70.

Chang Kuo 5 ft 124, 125.

Chang Liang 55 92, 93.

Chang Sang-chiin fji fg, 106,
107.

Chang Shuo 55 f&. 68.

Chang Tao-ling 55 it it I 3 > 14.

16, 19, 20, 22, 24, 55, 94, 103,
134, 145, 153 . 154 -
Chang Ya-tzu 55 55 -?> 112.

Chang Yiian-hsiao 55 ill ?r, 83.

403


Ch’ang ||, 41, 42.

Ch’ang-an J| 189, 190, 199.
Ch’ang Ch’un g 23.

Chao Kung-ming $§ ]J 0 , 79,

80.

Chao Meng-fu ^g, 23, 24.

Chao Yun |g U, 175, 179.
Ch’ao-chou 127, 201.

Ch’ao Yang Men g§ p*J, 23,

7 i. 135 -

Ch£ Ch’i Shan ^ [Jj. 89.

Chen 134.

Chen Jen ^ 108, 113.

Chen Tsung M *?, 58, 59. 7°, 7E
112, 154.

Chen Wu jH ig, 111.

Ch’gn B, 30.

Ch’eng Chi $ 138.

Ch’eng Ch’ing $ Jg, 78.

Ch’eng Huang g|, 67, 68, 69,
70.

Ch’eng T’ang $ g§, 38.

Ch’eng Ts’ui J®, 202.
Ch’eng-tu $ gp, 158, 176.
Ch’eng Wang $ 3£ , 43, 66.

Chi Li ^ gg, 41.

Ch’i §f§, 41.

Ch’i 9, 32, 67.


INDEX


404

Ch’i U, 56.

Ch’i 39-
Ch’i Hou ^ 48.

Ch’i-lin 511, 21, 98.

Ch’i Po lhj£ IS, 14, 29.

Chia Chia ^3 fp, 138.

Chia Ching jg £g, 73.

Chia Hsien {[I|, 84.

Chia I tp 2 i» 138.

Chia Yu Hsien J§ ^ JgS, 174.
Chiang Ko ££ 163.

Chiang Shan [Ij, 65.

Chiang Shih ^ f^p, 150, 165.
Chiang T’ai Kung Tsai Tz’u
^ ± & fe lib. 153-
Chiang Tzu-wen J- ~$C> 65.

Chiang Tzii-ya H 79> 80,

153-

Chiang Yiian 6.

Chiao 61.

Chieh Kuei 3 $, 38.

Ch’ien §§£, 138.

Ch’ien Ifc, 136, 141.

Ch’ien Lung ^ |H, 17, 88, 95.
Ch’ien Shih f§& j^p, 139.

Chih 85, 168.

Chih Nil $£ ic, 97. 132, 162.

Ch’ih Pi # n, 175.

Ch’ih Sung Tzu # T*. 94-

Ch’ih Yu M X, 28.

Chin-chow 0 Al> 124.

Chin dynasty 0 $2, 97. ”2, 118,
188.

Chin-hua 1 $, 101.


Chin Ku Ch’i Kuan

-£ & ft H. 169.

Chin Shan ^ jl| , 192.

Chin T’ung & H, 71.

Chin W£n j£, II.

Ch’in Ch’iung |f|, 78.

Ch’in dynasty ^ $E, 10, 44, 61,
70, 81, 89, 92, 1 14, 115, 133,
145. 194-

Ch’in, Prince of ^ 3:. 78.

Ch’in Kuei ^ H 1 , 97.

Ch’in T’ien Chien 143.

Ch’in Tsung £?, 95.

Ching f#, 18.

Ching Ch’eng Chih Chih

113 .

Ching-chow fij 4H> 95-
Ching K’e ^|J fp[, 78.

Ching Shan ^ |_L|, 182.

Ching-te '0 $g, 59.

Ching Ti 7* "rff, n.

Ching Yang |j§, 106.

Ch’ing Ch’eng 7^ 83.

Ch’ing Ching f? , 147.

Chiu-hua % |j§, 72, 193.

Chiu I % H, 1 14.

Chiu Kung fi 114.

Chiu T’ang Shih U 0 143.

Chiu Ti % 25.

Ch’iu Jx, 168.

Ch’iu Chen-jen jji yl A, 106.
Ch’iu Ch ’u-chi Jr& lM #1, 23, 190.
Chiung Chow IJ$ jHi, 84.

Ch’o Wo Si!®, hi.


INDEX


405


Chou Hsin 39, 40, 43, 66,

Hi, 137-

Chou-i JU J§, 137.

Chou Yu M Sk, 178.

( Chow, Duke of [61.

(Chow Kung j^J S,4°> 4 1 , 44,
Chow dynasty J^I $B, 61, 63, 66,
79-

Chow Li M I H, 44, 45, 46, 73,
135, 136.

Chu It, 105.

Chu Hsi & 49, 56, 77, n8,

144.

Chu Jung g£, 32, 76, 77.
Chu-ko Liang §§ H 175, 176,
177.

Chu Show-ch’ang 3c 1| H, 164.
Chu Shu it #, 33-
Ch’u 85, 86, 88.

Ch’u Ch’ieh 169.

Ch’u-ch’iu *i! Jr., 138.

Ch’ii Fu -f., 30.

Ch’u Yuan Jg ft, 85, 91.

Chuan Hsii |gS JM, 62.

Ch’uan Hou Jl| jjf, 72.

Chuang Tzu %£ 14, 19, 22,

53,90, 113, 133, 134, 168, 169.
Ch’un Ch’iu ^ Jt, II, 138.
Ch’un Hua ^ JL, 100.

Chung K’uei fjjf ;/[§, 152.
Chung-li Ch’uan M SI 12 1,
122, 124, 128.

Chung-liu If, 74, 80.

Chung Shan fig [JLl, 65.


Chung T’iao 4* 1^, 124.

Chung Wu & jg;, 96.

Chung Yu It ^3, 162.

Ch’ung Cheng T’an ^ M lit,
181.

Ch’ung Hsii Chen King
134-

Ch’ung Hui 0 jjg, 95.
Erh-shih-ssu Hsiao H -f H
161.

Fa H, 41.

Fa Hsien ££ JU, 188.

Fan Ch’eng-ta fa jz, 76.
Fang jf, 61.

Fang-chang # 115.

Fang-ming # BJJ, 47.

Fang Shih ±, 54, 194.

Fei, Lady j|, 8 2.

Fei Ch’ang-fang Jf 131,

132.

Fen-chow 31, 124.

Fen-yang H, 96.

Feng fj, 41, 42.

Feng Hsiang Jg, |$, 200.

Feng I iH ipf, 90.

Feng-huang Jg, 21, 98.

Feng Po PL Jfi, 73.

Feng Shan $f?, 199.

Feng Shen Yen I jjiip -Jg jf|, 66,
80, 112.

Feng Shih JE flip ,73.

Feng Shui JE 7jC, 140, 141.

Feng Su Chi JE IB, 131.

Feng Su T’ung jEi&j®, 78, 105.


4°6


INDEX


Feng-yang J®, g§, ioo, 179.

Fen Yen Chien Wen Chi

m s e m is, 14.

Fu 4g, 104.

Fu Ch’i flg 147.

Fu Hsi ffc fg, 8, 25, 27, 29, 30,
3i, 32, 33, 55, 101, 136.
Fu-pao ppj- f|, 27.

Fu Shan J§ [Jj, 30.

Fu-shou-lu jjig H jf$, 82.

Fu-ti 0 ±&, 115.
FuYiiTai^fj-^r^, hi.
Genghis Khan 23, 190.

Hai Yii Ch’ung K’ao

PS M #, 127-

Han dynasty $| $B, 10, 19, 20,
29, 32 , 44, 55, 62, 70, 73, 75,
76, 81, 93-

Han Ch’i fj| 106.

Han Fei Tzu # J*, 19.

Han Hsiang fj| jfg, I2 6, 127.
Han Li Chih ]g, 25.

Han Yii 126.

Hao Ang Hsien Hua ^ jig IS,
70.

Hao T’ien Yii Huang Shang Ti
H X 3 M _L ft, 59-
Ho fnj\ 33, 34, 37, 43-
Ho Cheng A IE, 77-
Ho Hsien-ku {nf {[lj ££, 128.
Ho-ling fg #, 123.

Ho Po A ft, 77-
Ho Po f5f fg, 90.

Ho Shen A jji$, 76, 77.


Ho Ti fp »jj?, 134.

Ho T’u 34.

Hou 103.

Hou-chi fjg, 6, 66.

Hou-t’u jf ±, 62, 67.

Hou-t’u nai-nai M ± 05 $}, 67.
Hsi Hai |tf 70.

Hsi-hua ® ip, 114.

Hsi-ling Shih fEf j£, 28.

Hsi Pien Men ffi p«J, 23, 135.
Hsi Po ® fQ, 41.

Hsi Wang Mu ® I -g:, 104, 1 14,
116, 117, 118, 128, 129.
Hsi-yii jJEf |||, 120.

Hsi Yu Chi ® M IS, 190.

Hsia X, 35, 66, 76.

Hsia-p ’i T 215, 94-
Hsiang 161.

Hsiang Ch eng Jg 14.

Hsiang Chi J§ 92.

Hsiang Chiin jfjj 86, 88, 90.
Hsiang Fu-jen $[J A A, 86, 88,
90, 161.

Hsiang Mien 40 ffi, 139.

Hsiang Shan [i|, 89.

Hsiang Yang Jg |§, 95.

Hsiao, Duke ^ 122.

Hsiao Hsiieh /J> 118.

Hsiao Kan ^ 163.

Hsiao King ^ §£, 100.

Hsieh T’ien Hu Kuo Chung I
Ta Ti @ fc iS A ft,

95-

Hsien fill, $§, 108, 114.


INDEX


407


Hsien Ching {[li ij|, 114.

Hsien Ho $g, 104.

Hsien Shan f[lj |Xl , 114.

Hsien T’an -ftp jg, 114.

Hsien Tsung g?, 200.
Hsien-yiian fj|, 27.
Hsin-ch’ou ^ 34 -

Hsin Yin King ;[> pp f£, 57.
Hsing fr, 74.

Hsing Ch’i fj 147.

Hsing Shen ff jji$, 82.

Hsiu-chi ^ B, 37.

Hsiung Wu £f£ b£, 96.

Hsu Chln-jen ff|A, 114-

Hsu Hsiin 113.

Hsii Shen 140.

Hsu Shih % fn, 1 15.

Hsu Yu 167, 168.

Hsiian Chiao ^ 24.

Hsiian Ti el 75 . 105.

Hsiian T’ien %, 111.

Hsiian Tsung ^ g?, 18, 96, 112.
Hsiian Wang jt[ 3£, 167.
Hsiian-yang g§, 113.

Hsiian Yiian Huang Ti
£ 7G H 22.

Hsiieh Shan # 4I4 , 23.

Hsiin Tzu ^ TL 139.

Hu 3 g, 46.

Hu (house) H. 74 . 80.

Hu (tiger) jj£, 103.

Hu Ching-te #| fiC M, 78.
Hu-k’ou p , 66.

Hu Rung 32 131, 132.


Hu Li M ffi, 103 -

Hu Yin jif, 203.

Hu Ying-lin HI $H, 128.

Hua T’o |j| [?£, 107.

Huai-nan Tzii #£ jf] T*. 19, 54 .
55 -

Huai-nan Wang ]f] 3 :, H5-

Huan, Duke f|[ 138.

Huang Jjf, 46.

Huang Chin 3I [JL 174.

Huang Hsiang jf 164.

Huang Lao j| 144.

Huang Li M gt, 143.

Huang Ti ^ 7, 17, 20, 21,

25, 27, 32, 33 . 4 L 75 , 82, 94,
99.

Huang Ti Su Wen jt ^ Iff P 9 ,
28.

Huang T’ien Shang Ti
# X ± i t, 49 -

Huang T’ing-chien jj| J? |g,
165.

Huang Yao jl Mi, 34 -

Hui Tsung ^ g?, 59, 95, 135,
194.

Hung-chow #|, 1 13.

Hung Lieh Chuan $§ $3 54.

Hung Wu $c JE 68, 99, 117.

I King f£, 16, 44, 45, 136,
142, 144.

I Yin § 3 - 3*, 9.

Jen Fang ft ff£, 58.

Jen Tsung C S?, 127, 139.

Ju Chia 8, 24.


408